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17 views31 pages

Session 4

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Schoolboy LT
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© © All Rights Reserved
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DCIT 204

Data Structures and


Algorithms 1

Sessions 3 and 4- Brute Force and Exhaustive Search

Course Writer: Dr Kofi Sarpong Adu-Manu


Contact Information: [email protected]

College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2020/2021 – 2022/2023
Brute Force
A straightforward approach, usually based directly on the problem’s
statement and definitions of the concepts involved

Examples:
1. Computing an (a > 0, n a nonnegative integer)

2. Computing n!

3. Multiplying two matrices

4. Searching for a key of a given value in a list


Brute-Force Sorting Algorithm
Selection Sort Scan the array to find its smallest element and swap
it with the first element. Then, starting with the second element,
scan the elements to the right of it to find the smallest among
them and swap it with the second elements. Generally, on pass i
(0  i  n-2), find the smallest element in A[i..n-1] and swap it
with A[i]:

A[0]  . . .  A[i-1] | A[i], . . . , A[min], . . ., A[n-1]

in their final positions

Example: 7 3 2 5
Analysis of Selection Sort

Time efficiency:
Space efficiency:
Stability:
Brute-Force String Matching
• pattern: a string of m characters to search for
• text: a (longer) string of n characters to search in
• problem: find a substring in the text that matches the pattern

Brute-force algorithm
Step 1 Align pattern at beginning of text
Step 2 Moving from left to right, compare each character of
pattern to the corresponding character in text until
• all characters are found to match (successful search); or
• a mismatch is detected
Step 3 While pattern is not found and the text is not yet
exhausted, realign pattern one position to the right and
repeat Step 2
Examples of Brute-Force String Matching

Pattern: 001011
Text: 10010101101001100101111010

Pattern: happy
Text: It is never too late to have a happy childhood.
Pseudocode and Efficiency

Efficiency:
Brute-Force Polynomial Evaluation
Problem: Find the value of polynomial
p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 +… + a1x1 + a0
at a point x = x0

Brute-force algorithm
p  0.0
for i  n downto 0 do
power  1
for j  1 to i do //compute xi
power  power  x
p  p + a[i]  power
return p
Efficiency:
Polynomial Evaluation: Improvement
We can do better by evaluating from right to left:

Better brute-force algorithm


p  a[0]
power  1
for i  1 to n do
power  power  x
p  p + a[i]  power
return p
Efficiency:
Closest-Pair Problem
Find the two closest points in a set of n points (in the two-
dimensional Cartesian plane).

Brute-force algorithm
Compute the distance between every pair of distinct points
and return the indexes of the points for which the distance is
the smallest.
Closest-Pair Brute-Force Algorithm (cont.)

Efficiency:

How to make it faster?


Brute-Force Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– wide applicability
– simplicity
– yields reasonable algorithms for some important problems
(e.g., matrix multiplication, sorting, searching, string
matching)

• Weaknesses
– rarely yields efficient algorithms
– some brute-force algorithms are unacceptably slow
– not as constructive as some other design techniques
Exhaustive Search
A brute force solution to a problem involving search for an element
with a special property, usually among combinatorial objects
such as permutations, combinations, or subsets of a set.

Method:
– generate a list of all potential solutions to the problem in a
systematic manner (see algorithms in Sec. 5.4)

– evaluate potential solutions one by one, disqualifying


infeasible ones and, for an optimization problem, keeping
track of the best one found so far

– when search ends, announce the solution(s) found


Example 1: Traveling Salesman Problem
• Given n cities with known distances between each pair, find the
shortest tour that passes through all the cities exactly once before
returning to the starting city
• Alternatively: Find shortest Hamiltonian circuit in a weighted
connected graph
• Example: 2
a b
5 3
8 4

c 7 d
TSP by Exhaustive Search
Tour Cost
a→b→c→d→a 2+3+7+5 = 17
a→b→d→c→a 2+4+7+8 = 21
a→c→b→d→a 8+3+4+5 = 20
a→c→d→b→a 8+7+4+2 = 21
a→d→b→c→a 5+4+3+8 = 20
a→d→c→b→a 5+7+3+2 = 17

More tours?

Less tours?

Efficiency:
Example 2: Knapsack Problem
Given n items:
– weights: w1 w2 … wn
– values: v1 v2 … v n
– a knapsack of capacity W
Find most valuable subset of the items that fit into the knapsack

Example: Knapsack capacity W=16


item weight value
1 2 $20
2 5 $30
3 10 $50
4 5 $10
Knapsack Problem by Exhaustive Search
Subset Total weight Total value
{1} 2 $20
{2} 5 $30
{3} 10 $50
{4} 5 $10
{1,2} 7 $50
{1,3} 12 $70
{1,4} 7 $30
{2,3} 15 $80
{2,4} 10 $40
{3,4} 15 $60
{1,2,3} 17 not feasible
{1,2,4} 12 $60
{1,3,4} 17 not feasible
{2,3,4} 20 not feasible
{1,2,3,4} 22 not feasible Efficiency:
Example 3: The Assignment Problem
There are n people who need to be assigned to n jobs, one person
per job. The cost of assigning person i to job j is C[i,j]. Find an
assignment that minimizes the total cost.

Job 0 Job 1 Job 2 Job 3


Person 0 9 2 7 8
Person 1 6 4 3 7
Person 2 5 8 1 8
Person 3 7 6 9 4

Algorithmic Plan: Generate all legitimate assignments, compute


their costs, and select the cheapest one.
How many assignments are there?
Pose the problem as the one about a cost matrix:
Assignment Problem by Exhaustive Search
9 2 7 8
6 4 3 7
C= 5 8 1 8
7 6 9 4
Assignment (col.#s) Total Cost
1, 2, 3, 4 9+4+1+4=18
1, 2, 4, 3 9+4+8+9=30
1, 3, 2, 4 9+3+8+4=24
1, 3, 4, 2 9+3+8+6=26
1, 4, 2, 3 9+7+8+9=33
1, 4, 3, 2 9+7+1+6=23
etc.
(For this particular instance, the optimal assignment can be found by exploiting
the specific features of the number given. It is: )
Final Comments on Exhaustive Search
• Exhaustive-search algorithms run in a realistic amount of time only
on very small instances

• In some cases, there are much better alternatives!


– Euler circuits
– shortest paths
– minimum spanning tree
– assignment problem

• In many cases, exhaustive search or its variation is the only known


way to get exact solution
Graph Traversal Algorithms

Many problems require processing all graph vertices (and edges) in


systematic fashion

Graph traversal algorithms:

– Depth-first search (DFS)

– Breadth-first search (BFS)


Depth-First Search (DFS)
• Visits graph’s vertices by always moving away from last
visited vertex to unvisited one, backtracks if no adjacent
unvisited vertex is available.

• Uses a stack
– a vertex is pushed onto the stack when it’s reached for the first
time
– a vertex is popped off the stack when it becomes a dead end,
i.e., when there is no adjacent unvisited vertex

• “Redraws” graph in tree-like fashion (with tree edges and


back edges for undirected graph)
Pseudocode of DFS
Example: DFS traversal of undirected graph

a b c d

e f g h

DFS traversal stack: DFS tree:


Notes on DFS
• DFS can be implemented with graphs represented as:
– adjacency matrices: Θ(V2)
– adjacency lists: Θ(|V|+|E|)
• Yields two distinct ordering of vertices:
– order in which vertices are first encountered (pushed onto
stack)
– order in which vertices become dead-ends (popped off stack)
• Applications:
– checking connectivity, finding connected components
– checking acyclicity
– finding articulation points and biconnected components
– searching state-space of problems for solution (AI)
Breadth-first search (BFS)
• Visits graph vertices by moving across to all the neighbors of last
visited vertex

• Instead of a stack, BFS uses a queue

• Similar to level-by-level tree traversal

• “Redraws” graph in tree-like fashion (with tree edges and cross


edges for undirected graph)
Pseudocode of BFS
Example of BFS traversal of undirected graph

a b c d

e f g h

BFS traversal queue: BFS tree:


Notes on BFS
• BFS has same efficiency as DFS and can be implemented with
graphs represented as:
– adjacency matrices: Θ(V2)
– adjacency lists: Θ(|V|+|E|)

• Yields single ordering of vertices (order added/deleted from queue


is the same)

• Applications: same as DFS, but can also find paths from a vertex to
all other vertices with the smallest number of edges
Reference
Levitin, A. (2012). Introduction to the Design and
Analysis of Algorithms ( 3rd Edition). Harlow: Addison
Wesley.
Acknowledgement

Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.


All Rights Reserved.

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