Chapter 2

Graphics Hardware
 Display (CRT, LCD,…)
 Graphics accelerator
 Scan controller
 Video Memory (frame buffer)
 Display/Graphics Processor
 CPU/Memory/Disk …
Resolution


Maximum number of pixels that can be plotted
without overlap

Expressed as: # horizontal X # vertical pixels

Depends on:
- phosphor used
- focusing system (how small a point)
- Speed/precision of deflection system
- video memory size (raster scan)
 Aspect Ratio

Ratio of # of pixel columns to # of pixel rows

Pixel Ratio (often called Aspect Ratio)

– Ratio of pixel height to pixel width
– Ratio of # of horizontal pixels to vertical pixels needed
to produce equal length lines
– For a square screen, A.R. = P.R.
– If Pixel Ratio != 1, figures are distorted
 Dot Pitch

Minimum distance between centers of adjacent pixels of

same color.
Should be less than 0.28 mm for sharp images
For fixed sized screen
– Decreasing distance between pixels ==> Increase
Resolution
– So dot pitch determines max resolution
 Persistence

After beam leaves a phosphor, it fades

Definition of persistence:
– Time to reduce initial intensity to 10% of original value
– Value depends on type of phosphor (10 - 100 msec.)
Finite persistence==>screen must be redrawn
– Refresh rate determined by persistence

Example: If persistence = 20 msec

– 1st pixel on screen invisible after that time ==>
• screen must be refreshed once every 20 msec
• so refresh rate must be > 50 Hz.
If refresh is too slow: flicker
If refresh is too fast: shadowing (ghosting)
 Graphics Hardware Systems

CPU--Runs program in main memory

– specifies what is to be drawn
CRT--does the actual display
Display Controller--Provides analog voltages needed to
move beam and vary its intensity

DPU (digital processing unit)—generates digital signals

that drive display controller
– (offloads task of video control to separate processor)

VRAM--Stores data needed to draw the picture

– Dual-ported (written to by CPU, read from by DPU)
– Fast (e.g., 1000X1000, 50 Hz ==> 20 nsec access time!)
– Also called Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer
I/O devices--interface CPU with user
 Flat-Panel Displays

Technologies to replace CRT monitors

Reduced volume, weight, power needs
– Thinner: can hang on a wall
– Higher resolution (High Definition)
Two categories:
– Emissive and non-emissive
 Flat Panel Displays: Emissive Devices

– Convert electrical energy to light

- Image is produced directly on the screen
– Plasma panels (gas-discharge displays): computer video
display.
• Voltages fired to intersecting vertical/horizontal conductors
cause gas to glow at that pixel
• Resolution determined by density of conductors
• Pixel selected by x-y coordinates of conductors
• These are “raster” devices
– Other technologies
• All require storage of x-y coordinates of pixels

• Examples:
– LEDs (light emitting diode)
– Flat CRTs
Plasma Panels: emit light
 LED - Direct view
- backlight source

LED (light emitting diode)

• LED TVs are a new form of LCD Television. The panel on an

LED TV is still an LCD TV panel and operates with the same
twisting crystals matrix.
• The backlight is the difference - changing from fluorescent
to LED based backlighting
• Have better contrast and more accurate colors than LCD.
 Flat Panel Displays: Non-emissive
Devices

– Use optical effects to convert ambient light(sunlight) to

pixel patterns (graphical patterns and shapes)
- the light is produced behind the screen and the image is
formed by filtering this light.
– Example: LCDs
• Pass polarized light from surroundings through liquid
crystal material that can be aligned to block or transmit
the light
• Voltage applied to 2 intersecting conductors determines
whether the liquid crystal blocks or transmits the light
– Like emissive devices, require storage of x-y coordinates of
pixel to be illuminated
 Liquid Crystal Display

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel display device

used for electronically displaying information such as text,
images and moving picture.

LCD is used in Computer monitors, Televisions, Instrument

panels, Gaming devices etc. Polarization of lights is used here
to display objects.

Liquid crystals are liquid chemicals in a state that has

properties between those conventional liquid and solid crystals.

That is a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules
may be oriented in a crystal-like way.
LCD
 Vector Scan Systems

Also called random, stroke, calligraphic displays

? Images drawn as line segments (vectors)
? Beam can be moved to any position on screen
? Refresh Buffer stores plotting commands
- is a portion of random-access memory (RAM) containing a
bitmap that drives a video display
- The information in the buffer typically consists of color values
for every pixel to be shown on the display.
– So Frame Buffer often called "Display File”
– provides DPU with needed endpoint coordinates
– Pixel size independent of frame buffer
• ==> very high resolution
Advantages of Vector Scan
? High resolution (good for detailed line drawings)
? High contrast ( the difference in visual properties that
makes an object or its image representation
distinguishable from other objects and the background.)
? Selective erase (remove commands from display file)
? Animation (change line endpoints slightly after each
refresh)

Refresh: to redraw the image information from memory

Disadvantages of Vector Scan

Complex drawings can have flicker (the appearance of

flashing or unsteadiness in an image on a display
screen.)
– Many lines
• so if time to draw > refresh time ==> flicker
– High cost
– Hard to get colors
– No area fill
• so it’s difficult to use for realistic (shaded) images
– 1960s Technology, only used for special purpose stuff
today
 Raster Scan Systems
(TV Technology)

Beam continually traces a raster pattern

Intensity adjusted as raster scan takes place
- In synchronization with beam
- Beam focuses on each pixel
- Each pixel’s intensity is stored in frame buffer
- So resolution determined by size of frame buffer
Each pixel on screen visited during each scan
– Scan rate must be >= 30 Hz to avoid flicker
 Advantages of Raster Scan
Systems

Low cost (TV technology)

? Area fill (entire screen painted on each scan)
? Colors
? Selective erase (just change contents of
frame buffer)
? Bright display, good contrast
– but not as good as vector scan can be:
– can’t make beam dwell on a pixel
 Disadvantages

? Large memory requirement for high resolution

? Aliasing (due to finite size of frame buffer)
– Finite pixel size
– Jagged lines (staircase effect)
– Moire patterns (irregular wavy finish), "creep" in
animations
? Raster scan is the principal “now” technology for
graphics displays!
 Color Display Hardware (raster)

Each pixel composed of 3 phosphors

– glow red, green, and blue
? 3 electron guns shoot their beams through a shadow
mask
– so beams hit the sensitive phosphors
? Intensity of 3 beams determines how bright each
phosphor glows
? Human eye detects an additive color mix
– e.g., max red, green, & blue perceived as white
 Direct color systems

Frame buffer divided into bit planes

? A bit plane contributes one bit to the color of each pixel
on the screen
? If resolution of the screen is W x H pixels:
– a bit plane is a W x H x 1 bit memory
? Bit planes can be organized into 3 sets
– Each called a color channel: (R, G, B)
– Bit planes of a color channel provide the intensity
values fed to that channel’s electron gun
? A system with N bit planes per color channel:
– 2N red, 2N green, & 2N blue shades
– 23N different colors displayable simultaneously
 Color Graphics on a PC

Graphics capabilities depend on display adapter(video card)

in the system
? Historical development: described by number of pixels and
colors.
– CGA (Color Graphics Adapter): supports 16 colors at
640x480 pixels or 256 colors
– EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter): display 16 colors with a
screen resolution of 640x350 pixels
– VGA (Video Graphics Array): true VGA supports 16 colors at
640x480 pixels or 256 colors at 320x200 pixels.
– Many different types of SVGA cards display 16-bit color with
a resolution of 800x600 pixels.
– Each display adapter can function in many different text
and graphics modes
– Backwards compatibility
 SVGA Adapters

? Many manufacturers
? One of the more popular labels placed on video cards
and monitors.
? A SVGA card or monitor is capable of displaying more
pixels (dots on the screen) and/or colors than basic VGA.

For example, an SVGA graphics card may be able to

display 16-bit color with a resolution of 800x600 pixels.
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Filament (generate heat)

2. Cathode (emit electrons)
3. Control grid (control intensity)
4. Focus 5. Deflector 6. Phosphor coating
 Color CRT
3 electron guns, 3 color phosphor dots at each pixel

Color = (red, green, blue) Black = (0,0,0)

White = (1,1,1)
Red = 0 to 100% Red = (1,0,0)
Green = 0 to 100% Green = (0,1,0)
Blue = 0 to 100% Blue = (0,0,1)
…
 Random Scan Order
 Old way: No pixels - The electron
gun draws straight lines from
location to location on the screen
(vector graphics)
a.k.a. calligraphic display,
Random scan device, vector
drawing display

Use either display list or

storage tube technology
Vector graphics
Display list
Move (100,200)
Draw(200,200)
Draw(200,100)
Draw(100,100)
 Raster Display graphics
Digital Display
 Based on (analog) raster-scan TV technology
 The screen (and a picture) consists of discrete
pixels
 How CRT draws a picture

 We have only one electron gun but

many pixels in a picture need to be
lit simultaneously…
 Refresh of CRT
 Refresh – the electron gun needs to come
back to hit the pixel again before it fades out

 An appropriate fresh rate depends on the

property of phosphor coating
Phosphor persistence: the time it takes for
the emitted light to decay to 1/10 of the
original intensity

 Typical refresh rate: 60 – 80 times per

second (Hz)
 Frame Buffer
 Frame buffer: the memory to hold the pixel
intensity values
 Properties of a frame buffer that affect the
graphics performance:
 Size: screen resolution
 Depth: color level
1 bit/pixel: black and white
8 bits/pixel: 256 levels of gray
24 bits/pixel: 16 million colors
 Speed: refresh speed
 Raster Scan Order
 What we do now: the electron gun
will scan through the pixels from
left to right, top to bottom
(scanline by scanline)
 Raster Scan Order
 The electron gun will scan through
the pixels from left to right, top to
bottom (scanline by scanline)

Horizontal retrace
 Raster Scan Order
 The electron gun will scan through
the pixels from left to right, top to
bottom (scanline by scanline)

Vertical retrace
 Progressive vs. Interlace
 Progressive: Scan every scan line
 Interlace: Scan only every other
scan line (even -> odd -> even ->
odd …)
- so the refresh rate becomes twice as
0
fast 1
Even scan
2
3 Odd scan
4
5
 Raster Scan Control
 Scan Controller (video adaptor) and
frame buffer
x
Scan controller
y

DAC
Frame buffer
 A simple graphics system

Frame buffer can be part

Scan
of the main memory Controller

Frame
CPU Main Memory
buffer

System bus

Problem?
 Dedicated memory
Video memory: On-board frame buffer:
much faster to access
Scan Frame
Controller buffer

CPU Main Memory

System bus
 Graphics Accelerator
Increase the speed at
which images are Graphics Memory/
processed and stored Frame buffer
Graphics Scan
A dedicated processor Processor Controller
for graphics processing

CPU Main Memory

System bus
Graphics Accelerator
Graphics Accelerator
 NVIDIA GPUs

Quadro FX 5600 Quadro FX 4600

Memory Size 1.5GB GDDR3 768MB GDDR3
Memory
384-bit 384-bit
Interface
Memory
76.8 GB/sec. 67.2 GB/sec.
Bandwidth
Max Power
171W 134W
Consumption
Number of Slots 2 2
Display DVI-I DVI-I DVI-I DVI-I
Connectors Stereo Stereo
Dual-Link DVI 2 2
Price $2,999.00 $1,999.00
 NVIDIA

- it designs graphics processing units (GPUs) for the gaming and

professional markets.
- as well as system on a chip units (SoCs) for the mobile
computing and automotive market.
- Its primary GPU line, labeled "GeForce", is in direct competition
with the GPUs of the "Radeon" brand by Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD).
 AMD GPUs
Desktop vs Mobility Radeon Graphics
Desktop Desktop
Radeon
Radeon Radeon
HD 6990M
HD 6990 HD 6870
Transistors 5.28 billion 1.7 billion 1.7 billion
Engine
830 MHz 900 MHz 715 MHz
Clock
Shader
3072 1120 1120
(ALUs)
Texture
192 56 56
Units
ROP Units 64 32 32
Compute
2.01 1.60
Performanc 5.1 TFLOPS
TFLOPS TFLOPS
e
GDDR5- GDDR5- GDDR5-
DRAM Type
5000 4200 3600
DRAM 256-bits
256-bits 256-bits
Interface per GPU
Memory 160 GB/s
134 GB/s 115.2 GB/s
Bandwidth per GPU
TDP 375 W 151 W 100 W
The Graphics Pipeline
 Graphics Bus Interface
PCI (peripheral component interconnect)
based technology
Graphics Memory/ Other
Frame buffer Peripherals
Graphics Scan
Processor Controller
PCI Bus – 132 MB/s

System Bus –
800MB/s
CPU Main Memory
 Graphics Bus Interface (2)
 PCI Bus becomes the bottleneck!
 Many devices are using it
 There is a lot of stuff needs to be
transmitted from main memory to
graphics memory (geometry,
textures, etc)
 Example: 2M triangle, 90 Bytes each –
180MB > 132 MB (PCI bandwidth)
 Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

A dedicated bus that allows direct access of main memory

Graphics Memory/ Other

Frame buffer Peripherals
Graphics Scan
Processor Controller
PCI Bus – 132 MB/s
AGP 1x: 518 MB/s
Fast!!!

CPU Main Memory