Steel Making

Dr. Trinath Talapaneni

Assistant Professor
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
OP. Jindal University
 Course Content
• Unit – I
• Introduction to steelmaking, acid Bessemer process and its limitations, basic Bessemer process and its
limitations, open hearth process and its limitation, introduction to basic oxygen furnace, LD design, related
refractory, oxygen lance, Raw materials for BOF, Oxygen lance characteristics, Jet action, Foaming and
Emulsion formation, Stabilization and collapse of emulsion, reactions in LD converter, Evolution of Impurities
in liquid steel, Evolution of slag composition, Thermodynamics of P removal, Decarburization, gas cleaning
system, bottom blowing process and its disadvantages, combined blowing process, modern trends in BOF
technology.

• UNIT –II
• Features of Induction Furnace, Steel making in electric arc furnace- raw materials for EAF process, design
and construction futures of EAF process, electrical considerations for AC/DC furnaces, graphite electrodes,
gas collection and cleaning system, fluxes and additives, Furnace operations, refining process, developments
in EAF steel making process, use of sponge iron as a charge, use of hot metal and Fe3C as charge material;
novel steel making technologies- EOF, CONARC.
• UNIT –III
• Ladle Metallurgy- Objectives of secondary steel making, inert gas stirring in ladles, ladle furnace,
deoxidation of liquid steel, deoxidation kinetics, injection metallurgy- desulphurization, kinetics of
desulphurization, design of synthetic slag and its practice, degassing techniques; clean steel-source of
inclusions, slag carry over and its consequences, effect of inclusions on properties of steel, types of
inclusions, properties of inclusions, control of inclusions, inclusion engineering, Stainless steel
Making Technology- AOD, VOD Process.

• UNIT –IV
• Ingot casting technologies- ESR, VAR processes, Tundish Metallurgy- role of tundish in the
continuous casting process, design and operation of tundish, flow control devices, role of tundish flux,
refractories, mould and its operation, electromagnetic stirring; mechanism of solidification, quality
control in continuous casting, recent trends in continuous casting, continuous casting defects and its
remedies.
• UNIT –V
• Finishing operations- Reheating of billets/blooms/slabs, hot rolling, cold rolling, galvanizing,
problems faced by domestic iron and steel industry, case study on defects occurred during processing
of final products, numerical related to steel making.
Unit- II
 Introduction of Electric Furnaces

• Arc Furnaces are of two types:

• Direct Arc
• Indirect Arc
• Direct Arc: In a direct arc furnace, arc is established between the charge and the
electrode. current flows from the electrode to the charge and heat is transferred directly
from the arc to the charge.
• There are two types of direct arc furnaces:
(a) AC arc furnace and
(b) DC arc furnace.
• Alternate current (AC) arc furnaces has three electrodes and they are fed from a three-phase
supply input, one phase connected to each electrode and the charge is the neutral point.
• Direct current (DC) arc furnace has only a single electrode which acts as cathode and the
bottom of the vessel act as anode
• Indirect arc furnace: In an indirect arc furnace, arc is struck between two carbon electrodes
and heat is transferred to the charge by radiations .
• Indirect arc furnaces are of small capacities and do not developed steelmaking temperature
readily. These furnaces are generally used in non-ferrous foundries for low-temperature
melting.
 Parts of Electric Arc Furnace

• An electric arc furnace used for steelmaking consists of a refractory-lined vessel, usually
water-cooled wall in larger sizes, covered with a refractory roof and through which three
graphite electrodes introduce into the furnace.
• Arc furnaces are of two different designs:
(i) The roof along with the electrodes swings clearly off the body to facilitate charging from top.
(ii) The roof is lifted a little and the furnace body moves to one side clearly off the roof to
facilitate charging.
• For smaller furnaces both of these alternatives are equally well suited, but for bigger sizes
the body becomes too heavy to move and hence the swing-aside roof design is favored.

• The furnace unit consists of the following parts:

(i) Furnace body—i.e., the shell, the hearth, the walls, the spout, the doors, etc.
(ii) Gears for furnace body movements.
(iii) Roof and roof-lift arrangements.
(iv) Electrodes, their holders and supports.
(v) Electrical equipment—i.e., the transformer, the cables, the electrode control mechanism,
etc.
 Furnace Body

• Roof:
• The holes are made from ring-type bricks. The roof (Delta) is built by high alumina (70–
80%) bricks; thickness varies from 25 to 45 cm.
• Because the roof lifts and swings away from the furnace body during the charging process,
refractories in the roof experience excessive thermal shock. The lesser thermal expansion of
high alumina castables and offer an advantage in withstanding thermal shock.
• Upper side walls:
• The upper sidewall zone of electric arc furnaces is lined with magnesia–carbon brick of 5-
20% C.
• The upper sidewall is subject to arc flame (very high temperatures) and impingement by
heavy scrap during the charging process.
• During the tapping process, as the furnace tilts, molten steel and slag contact the upper
sidewall brick on the tap side of the furnace due to this, it must be able to withstand
corrosion by steelmaking slags, and also flame impingement from oxygen lances and oxy-
fuel burners
• Slag line:
• This area is subject to high temperatures from exposure to the electric arc, oxidation and
flame impingement from supplemental oxygen injection, and most importantly, slag attack
from high temperature slags containing FeO, SiO2, and MnO.
• Most common is a slag line 12-18 in. in thickness using magnesia–carbon brick with 10–
20% carbon content.

• Lower side walls:

• These refractories are also made of magnesia-carbon bricks.

• Hearth:
• The hearth zone of an EAF must contain molten steel at high temperature and in addition the
hearth must withstand corrosion by molten slag as the furnace is drained. A typical EAF uses
a two component refractory hearth of around 9 in. of brick as a safety lining on the bottom
steel shell (sub bottom) contains 90-97% MgO and the working lining of 12-24 in. magnesite
refractory bricks (MgCO3) (60-95%).

• Tap Hole:
• The tap-hole sit within the hearth in a tap-hole seating assembly.
• The refractory material used for the tap hole is magnesia-carbon refractory brick, with
carbon content 10-15 %.
• Refractory bricks should have maximum erosion resistance to the liquid stream during
tapping.
• Taphole is closed with a slide gate.
• Electrodes:
• For a typical alternating current (AC) electric arc furnace has three electrodes. The
electrode arm supports the electrodes.
• The electrodes are either of carbon or graphite and are capable of carrying current at high
density. Graphite, having better electrical conductivity than carbon, is generally preferred.
• Electrode dia is 600 mm and length 2400 mm. Electrode consumption rate is 1.2 kg/ton
• Ultra high transformers are used, 80Megawatt power is supplied.
• The electrodes are supported on three separate arms and held to the electrode arm by a
spring-clamped, pneumatically released electrode holder. The electrode arms support the
electrodes, holders, bus bars and transformer power cables. The electrodes are raised and
lowered by manual or automatic controls.
• There are three basic electrode erosion mechanisms, namely erosion at the electrode tip due
to the action of the electric arc, oxidation of the electrode sides by the furnace atmosphere
and mechanical breakages due to scrap fall.
• The electrode is automatically adjusted to maintain a stable arc. Each electrode is provided
with an independent system of control.
• Electrodes are costly, and consumption is 5–6 kg/t of liquid steel production. Electrodes are
joined with the help of nipple.
• UHP furnace carries heavy current through electrodes and hence needs water-cooled
electrode holders.

• For efficient melting the arc must be stabilized to supply uniformly a maximum amount of
energy. This necessitates keeping the distance between the electrode and the charge constant.
As melting occurs, this distance increases.
• The furnace is provided with a vertical column to which horizontal arms are attached and
the electrode is held by the arm in position. The electrode arm supporting the electrode
clamp is generally tubular and is water-cooled. Current is carried from the transformer by
flexible cables to the copper bus bar. The electrode is held in a vertical position in a water-
cooled copper clamp situated at the end of the electrode arm.
• During melting, more power is required than during refining. The transformer capacity is
designed to suit melting requirements. The capacity is, therefore, under-utilized during
refining. It is economical to have at least two furnaces operating side by side to improve the
overall electrical power factor.

• Gears for Furnace Body Movements

• The furnace body needs to be tilted max 15-20° on the tapping side and 15° on the slag–
discharge side.
• To avoid carry over slag a tilt back speed of 3–4° per second is maintained.
• The tilting gear is operated by hydraulic cylinders.
• General dimensions of EAF:

Basic concepts of Iron and steel making

 Arc Furnace Operation

• The operation of an arc furnace varies with the furnace design, raw materials used to make
up the charge, charging facilities available in the shop, process of refining adopted, quality
and type of the product required, and so on.
• For a given shop, the melter has a variety of refining practices to choose from, depending
upon the quality of the charge and the product required therefrom. The variation is mainly
related to the practice of slag making and it is, therefore, aptly said that the melter makes the
slag and the slag makes the steel.

• Process types known by their slags:

• Acid Process: If the raw materials are very low in P and S, an acid lined furnace can be used
for refining, using an acid slag. It is generally restricted to foundries.
• Basic Process: It is capable of refining any type of charge by maintaining basic slag in a
basic lined furnace. Unlike any other steel making process, the EAF has practically no
oxidizing atmosphere of its own.
• Oxidizing as well as reducing conditions for refining can be maintained by making slags of
suitable compositions.
• Oxidizing refining is carried out under a slag containing a good amount of iron oxide.
• Reducing conditions can be maintained by having the slag highly basic but practically free of
iron oxide.
• The following describes the ways in which these slags are used for refining in an arc
furnace:
(i) Oxidizing single slag practice: It is used for making carbon or low alloy steels. The charge
is melted and refined under a basic oxidizing slag. The alloy additions may be made in the
furnace or in the ladle.
(ii) Oxidizing double slag practice: It is a modification over the single slag practice. The early
slag is removed and a similar new slag is made again to obtain effective
desulfurization and dephosphorization during refining.
(iii) Reducing single slag practice: It is used for high alloy steel making to effect maximum
recovery of alloying elements from the scrap. Carbon and phosphorus contents in the scrap
must be well below the specification levels since these will not be removed during refining.
Sulfur, however, could be readily removed in this practice since the conditions are reducing.
(iv) Oxidizing slag converted to reducing: It is meant to remove carbon but recover most of the
alloying contents like Cr, Mn, etc., present in the scrap during high alloy steel making.
Phosphorus content of the charge needs to be below the specification level, since it will
otherwise revert to the metal during the reducing period.
(v) Double slag practice: It means refining under oxidizing as well as reducing slags made
separately. The first slag is oxidizing and it eliminates all impurities like P, Si, C, Mn, etc. This
slag is removed and a reducing slag is made by fresh additions of lime, coke, and spar to
desulfurize the metal and to carry out alloying very effectively.
• The practice is a must if effective desulfurization and the large alloying additions are to be
made. It is costly but the yield of the alloying additions is very high and the quality of the
product is much better.
• Among the above practices the (i), (iv) and (v) types of practices are more widely adopted in
practice. The (iii) and (iv) types of practices are used in induction furnace processes.
• Working Process:
• EAF working process consist of following steps:
1. Furnace Preparation 2. Charging
3. Melting 4. Refining
5. Finishing and tapping of single slag heat 6. Slag-off and making reducing slag
7. Reducing period 8. Finishing and tapping of the heat
• Raw materials for Steel making in EAF
• Scrap + skull
• DRI
• Hot metal
• Lime+dolo (1ton)

• For 1 ton of steel : 50 % (scrap + DRI) + 50% Hot metal.

• Scrap – 30% and 20% will be DRI.
Basic concepts of Iron and steel making
• Furnace Preparation:
• After tapping the previous heat, the slag is completely drained out and lining is inspected.
The eroded portion, usually the slag and the slag-metal boundary lines, the doorsill, the tap
hole, the spout and the damaged area of the hearth are all repaired in hot condition using
granular dolomite or magnesite.

• Raw material charging:

• The electrodes are raised and then the roof is swung away. A bucket charging system is used
to charge the raw materials into EAF through the open top.
• A little of light scrap on the furnace bottom provides a cushioning effect and protects the
hearth from mechanical damage due to the falling of heavy pieces of scrap. In top charging,
therefore, the basket is loaded with a little of light scrap at the bottom. The heavy scrap is
kept above this and is mainly in the center. The remaining light scrap is loaded around heavy
and at the top.
• Quick meltdown of the charge depends to a large extent on proper proportioning of light,
medium and heavy scrap and on the sequence of charging. As a rule of thumb, the basket is
filled with 20% light, 40% medium and 40% heavy scrap in the sequence of light, medium,
heavy scrap.
• Burned lime and spar are added in the basket to help form early slag of the required
qualities. If refining is to be carried out during melting, lumpy iron ore and/or mill scale is
also included in the charge.
• Broken electrode pieces, coke, etc., are added if required, in the basket itself to obtain
required carbon in the bath at the melt-out.
• The furnace body is cleared off the roof and the basket is lowered in or held just above the
furnace by an overhead crane. The bottom of the basket is opened and the charge drops out
in the furnace.
• Melting:
• once charging is complete, the roof is swung back over the furnace and melt down
commences. The electrodes are lowered on to the scrap and an arc is struck.
• Lower voltages are selected for the first part of the operation to protect the roof and walls
from exposure to excessive heat from the arc. With the commencement of melting as the
electrodes are further lowered, the arc gets shielded by the scrap alloying supply voltage to
be increased.
• Slag door can be used for charging iron
• During melting process, there are two methods of hot metal charging into the EAF:
• (a) Charging through roof: Initially, scrap is melted in the EAF with closed roof. After liquid
pool of metal is formed, melting is halted, and the roof opened; the hot metal is quickly
poured into the furnace. The disadvantage is that the melting process must be interrupted,
and radiation losses occur due to opening of the roof.
• (b) Charging using a launder: Initially, scrap is melted in the EAF with closed roof. Oxygen
lancing is performed to cut the heavy scrap which is near the door as to permit the insertion
of the launder through the door. The hot metal is poured smoothly with the help of launder in
to the EAF, while scrap melting continues without interruption.
• This is the most preferred technique as it does not increase the tap-to-tap time and no heat
losses by radiation occur. It is essential that the charging time should be keep as short as
possible (about 10 t/min) to minimize cooling of the hot metal.
• Refining process:
• Now the furnace transformer is switched over to a medium voltage, since high power is no
longer needed, because the wall and roof lining have been heated to a high temperature
during melting period.
• Since phosphorous has tendency to reversion at high temperature, so before bath pickup high
temperature, phosphorous should be fully eliminated by increasing the basicity of slag and
decreasing temperature. To lower down the temperature, some scrap is charged.
• Oxygen lancing is done to remove the impurities from the steel.
• Four oxygen pipes are inserted into EAF for oxygen injection. Along with oxygen, coke is
also injected to produce foamy slag.

Effect of slag basicity and temperature on phosphorus content in the metal

 C + 0.5 O2 = CO
• Co penetrates through the slag and makes foamy to reduce radiations and noise.
• Total consumption of O2 = 3500nm3 for 100 ton of steel.
• Oxygen is injected at a pressure of 16bar.
• Initially 600 nm3 of O2 is maintained to form initial slag , once slag is made the oxygen flow
is raised to 1000 and then 1800 nm3.
• Coke injection = 700 kg per 100 ton of steel, i.e. 7 kg/ton.
• Coke is injected at a pressure of 5 bar.
• At the end of the melting down period, a basic slag is formed. The slag contains various
oxides like FeO, CaO, SiO2, MnO, Al2O3 etc. The refining takes place under the influence of
this basic oxidizing slag.
• Si is oxidized to SiO2 which passes into the slag. Evolution of {CO} gas stirs the bath and the
phenomenon is known as carbon boil. In order to ensure adequate carbon boil the opening
carbon content of the bath should be 0.25 to 0.3 % higher than the final carbon content
desired.
• Dephosphorization is favored by a basic oxidizing slag. The dephosphorization reaction may
be written as:
2[P] + 5(FeO) = (P2O5 ) +5Fe
(P2O5 ) + 4(FeO) = (4CaO. P2O5 )
• It is necessary to maintain the basicity of the slag by periodic addition of lime. A flush slag
practice is usually practiced in electric furnace operation. In this practice, the furnace is
inclined and a part of the slag is drained off through the door sill into a slag pot kept below.
• A large part of the phosphorus oxidized during melting is removed with the first slag. Fresh
lime and iron ore are charged to continue the refining reactions. As the carbon-oxygen
reaction rate picks up the intensity of the carbon boil also increases. The slag may froth. As
the slag level rises, a part of the slag will automatically overflow out through the door sill.
• The overflowing slag carries away dissolved P2O5.This helps in continuing the
dephosphorization reaction. The phosphorus level drops to 0.015-0.02%.
• Once the chemistry of the bath and the temperature are at the desired level the heat is ready
to be deoxidized and finished for tapping. Bath temperature is measured by an immersion,
A.K. Chakraborthi
optical, or radiation pyrometer.
• Preliminary deoxidation is done by Fe-Mn, Fe-Si, etc. Many operators block the heat by
dipping the electrodes in the bath. This practice improves cleanliness of the bath.

• Finishing and tapping of single slag heat:

• The bath is deoxidized first by the addition of ferrosilicon and ferromanganese, and finally by
addition of aluminum.
• The heat is tapped by opening the tap hole. The furnace is tilted by a jerk to prevent slag from
flowing along with the metal. There should be a minimum of slag in the ladle. The ladle
should be placed in the pit beneath the spout well ahead of tapping time.

• Slag-off and Making Reducing Slag:

• The main function of slag is as follows:
(i) Traditionally to absorb de-oxidation products and inclusions in ladle,
(ii) Covering the electrodes from oxidation and protecting the refractories from thermal
radiation,
(iii) Removing phosphorus and sulphur from the molten bath,
(iv) Protecting the metal from oxidation, as well as prevention of nitrogen and hydrogen
pickup,
(v) Minimizing heat loss and hence increase thermal efficiency of the electric arc furnace.
• Addition of iron ore/mill scale to the bath during melting causes the bath to boil intensively
due to CO gas formation. The foam formation of slag is made due to the gas evolution, and
the level of slag line thus rises.

• The slag should not fall below a (CaO/SiO2 ) ratio of 2.5 in order that there should be enough
free lime in the slag to fix P2O5 as calcium phosphate. The FeO content of the oxidizing slag
is normally found to be in the range of 14–20%.
• By tilting at an angle of 4–6° to the furnace towards the door side, 60–70% of initial (i.e.
oxidizing) slag is skimmed off from the furnace.
• After removal of oxidizing slag, bath should be carburized by addition of crushed electrodes
or coke to form reducing period. Aim of reducing period: (i) de-oxidation of the metal, (ii)
formation of reducing slag, (iii) removal of sulphur and (iv) adjustment of steel composition
and control of bath temperature.
• De-oxidation of the metal: Dissolved oxygen in metal is removed by adding de-oxidants
directly to the metal. Lumpy de-oxidants (i.e. Fe–Mn, Fe–Si, Al, etc.) are added to the bath.
• Reaction occurs at a depth in the metal bath (i.e. precipitation de-oxidation) which depends
on density and size of the de-oxidant lumps. That takes little time, but products of reaction
(SiO2 , MnO, Al2O3 ) can remain in the metal phase as non-metallic inclusions.
• Formation of reducing slag: Reducing slag is formed by adding fresh charge of lime and
spar in which a little of sand may be mixed to help form the slag. Strongly reducing carbidic
slag can be formed by putting coke on the slag after it has melted. It forms carbide as:
(CaO) + 3C = (CaC2 ) + {CO}
which is quite effective in desulfurizing the bath. The lime to coke ratio may be 6 : 1 to 12 : 1.
Basic concepts of Iron and steel making
• Carbide slag breaks into bright grey powder on cooling. In open air, calcium carbide is
decomposed by atmospheric moisture or putting carbide slag in water to form acetylene
(C2H2 ) gas, which has plangent smell. Due to plangent smell, steelmaker can easily
understand formation of carbide slag.

• De-sulphurization: There is no other process of steelmaking which can compare with a basic
EAF in its ability to remove sulphur from metal. Sulphur can be introduced from the charging
materials like lime, spar and Ferro-alloys. It can be also introduced during the reducing
period of the bath by coke and lime. For low sulphur steelmaking, petroleum coke (contain
low sulphur) can be used.
• Production of plain carbon steel by EAF contains only 0.012–0.021% S. Removal of sulphur
from metal in EAF is affected by: (a) degree of de-oxidation of the metal and slag, (b) carbon
content of the metal, (c) slag basicity, (d) temperature, (e) stirring action of metal and slag,
(f) holding time of metal under reducing slag and (g) content of sulphur in lime and other
feed materials for reducing slag.
• Amount of sulphur in the metal begins to drop appreciable only after the metal and slag have
been de-oxidized to a certain degree, i.e. rate of de sulphurization increases with decreasing
amount of oxygen in slag.
• The slag basicity can also affect the rate and degree of de-sulphurization. Higher basicity
ensures more complete de-sulphurization and greater rate of sulphur transfer from metal to
slag phase. High heating of the metal and slag, and active stirring of the bath help good
sulphur removal.

• Although the most favorable conditions for sulphur removal exist in the reducing period, it is
possible to remove sulphur partially during the oxidizing period. This requires a high
temperature and high basicity (2.5–3.0) of slag.
• Slag basicity can affect the rate and degree of de-sulphurization. Higher basicity ensures
more complete de-sulphurization and a greater rate of passage of sulphur from metal to slag
phase. Slag, without carbon or little carbon, which is white color, is known as lime slag.
• For production of low C (<0.15%) steel production, carbon is not added; instead of that Fe–
Si, Al are added as de-oxidizer. Slag, with high per cent of carbon, which is grey color, is
known as carbide slag. Carbide slag breaks into bright grey powder on cooling.
• Chemical compositions of carbide and lime slags are shown below:

• Finishing and Tapping of a Double slag Heat:

• It is possible to adjust the bath composition, under reducing slag, closer to the specification
levels.
• Since the alloying additions are made under reducing conditions, and that enough time is
available for slag-metal separation, the product is cleaner.

• Reactions in EAF:
• [Fe] + [O] = (FeO)
• [Mn] + [O] = (MnO) FeS + CaC2 + 2CaO = 3Fe +3CaS+2CO
• [Mn] + (FeO) = (MnO) + [Fe]
• [Si] + [O] = (SiO2)
• (FeO) + [Si] = [Fe] + (SiO2)
• 2[P] + 5[O] = (P2O5)
• 2[P] + (FeO) = (P2O5) + [Fe]
• [C] + [O] = {CO}
• CaO + 3 C (s) = CaC2 + CO;
• After refining, the steel sample is removed from the slag door using sampler tips for chemical
compositional analysis.
• The tip is made of Al , as the sample tip is inserted into steel, the Al tip melts and a lollypop
sample is taken by using capillary action.
• Temperature of the melt is recorded using thermocouple.
• Steel is tapped at a temperature of 1620 from EAF.
 Design of Furnace

• The calculations for design of different parts of an electric arc furnace are based on below
figure:

Basic concepts of Iron and steel making

• Shape and dimensions of bath:
• The hearth is usually conical-spherical with the banks inclined at an angle of 45°. This form
ensures quick melting.

(1)

• Height of reaction chamber:

• The diameter-to-depth ratio of the bath operating by the basic process is usually taken as:

• where D = bath diameter, m; and H = total depth of the bath, m.

• In existing furnaces, the height (h1) of the spherical portion is roughly 1/5 of the total bath
depth:
and the depth of the conical portion:
• Again, the total volume of the bath, Vb , is the sum of the volumes of the truncated cone (Vc)
and that of the spherical segment (Vsp ).
By virtue of the relationships given above:

• Therefore,
• Therefore, from Eq.(1)
• From the volume of liquid steel and slag, the diameter of the furnace (D) can be easily found
out.
• Diameter of spherical bottom,
• Dimensions of the reaction chamber:
• The banks of a furnace are usually made 0.1–0.2 m above the door sill level or the bath
surface, to ensure that the slag does not contact the brickwork or reach the joint between the
wall blocks and banks.
• The diameter of the reaction chamber is:
• It is recommended that the following relationship be used in determining the height of the
reaction chamber (H1 ),

• For large-capacity furnaces, the lower value (i.e. 0.4) is taking.

• The height of the furnace roof (h3 ) is:
• where D1 is the diameter of the furnace roof:

• D1 is roughly taken 1.0 m wider than Drc i.e.

• The total height of the roof above the bath level is given as:

• The recommended slope (S) for the inclination of the wall is roughly 10% of the height from the
line of banks to roof skewbacks:

• The diameter of the reaction chamber at the level of the roof skewbacks (i.e. at the level of the
upper edge of the furnace shell) is:

• The thickness of the lining is found by thermal analysis from the condition that the furnace
shell should not be heated above 200°C at the end of the furnace campaign. With the refractory
lining d m thick, the furnace will have the inside diameter of the shell (Di.sh):
 Further Developments in EAF

• Developments in EAF take place with the aim as follows:

(i) Reducing operational cost,
(ii) Improving efficiency of the furnace and
(iii) Quality of products

Basic concepts of Iron and steel making

• Developments in EAF can be subdivided into three heads as follows:
1. Design aspect,
2. Process modifications and
3. Charge modifications.

• Design Aspects:
• Rapid Melting Technology:
• The rate of melting of solid charge determines the total heat time and hence productivity of
the furnace. It is directly proportional to the power input (i.e. kVA/t capacity of furnace).
• Increasing size of EAFs has been the application of high power (HP) and ultra-high-power
(UHP) transformers to feed these furnaces.
• The transformers can be classified as:
• HP and UHP transformers must be adopted along with water-cooled cables of special
design, special electrode and so on for increasing the production rate. The UHP operation
may lead to heat fluxes and increased refractory wear, so cooling of the furnace panels is
necessary.
• Use of UHP in place of regular power supply results in saving time of melting and refining of
the order of 30% and 10%, respectively. Many EAF operators have installed new
transformers and electric systems to increase the power of the furnaces.

• Water cooled panels:

• Use of water-cooling systems for walls and roof becomes absolutely necessary for
economical operation. It is so because the furnace diameter cannot be increased at liberty
and hence the refractory consumption, otherwise exceeds the acceptable values for large-
capacity UHP EAFs.
• The water-cooled panels are of tube-on-tube design of steel pipes and cover up to 85% of the
wall above the slag line.
• The advantage of the external type water-cooled panels is that the refractory and electrode
consumption are reduced drastically, and more scrap can be accommodated in the furnace,
yielding about 20% more liquid metal.
• The roof is also water-cooled, except for the delta region around the electrodes.

• Blowing Oxygen and Carbon Injection:

• Blowing oxygen in molten steel releases heats because the reactions of oxygen with iron,
carbon, silicon, in the molten metal are exothermic in nature; hence, time of melting reduces,
the productivity is increased and the consumption of electricity decreases as well as
decreasing the electrode and refractory consumption.
• Modern operations use automatic non-consumable, water-cooled lances for injecting oxygen
into the steel. Many of these lances also have the capability to inject carbon as well.

M-ONE INJECTOR LIME-JET INJECTOR HI-JET INJECTOR

• The on-board equipment of the EAF shell comprises four different tools:
• M-ONE: an all-in-one injector integrating supersonic oxygen lancing capacity and coal
delivery intimately coordinated to generate and promote slag foaming.
• OXYGENJET: dedicated to supersonic oxygen for lancing. As per M-ONE, this injector
delivers a highly coherent supersonic stream of oxygen that is able to penetrate into the steel
bath to complete the oxidizing reactions. It is mostly used as a supplementary injection point,
especially to clean the scrap and the skulls at the sump area, in order to assure EBT free-
opening.
• LIMEJET: a tool specifically designed for the injection of the fluxes into the slag. Typical
injected solids are lime and/or dololime, added to modify the slag chemistry and foam it.
• HI_JET: a supersonic coaxial injector dedicated to introduce powdered fines at very high
speed under the slag-metal interface. The annular supersonic gas stream confines the
powdered particles by shrouding and transfers the momentum accelerating them along the
axis.
• Oxy-Fuel Burners:
• Oxygen–fuel burners are installed for the cold spots of the furnace, so that the time taken to
melt scrap in these areas is the same as that taken by the arc at the hot spots.
• Oxygen/natural gas burners can help faster melting the charge and reduce electrical
consumption and electrode usage while shortening the melting time from tap to tap.
• These burners increase the effective capacity of the furnace by increasing the speed of the
melt and reducing the consumption of electricity and electrode, which ultimately reduces
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
• Energy can be saved 2–3kWh/t of steel and reduction of heating time. Electrical energy
savings 0.14 GJ/t of steel, with typical oxygen injection rates of 18 Nm 3/t of steel and
emissions, can be reduced by 23.5 kg CO2 /t of steel.
• The use of oxy-fuel burners has several other beneficial effects; it increases heat transfer and
reduces heat losses.
• Steelmakers are now making wide use of stationary wall-mounted oxygen gas burners that
combination of burner and lance, which operate as a burner mode during the initial period
of the melting, and the burner change over to a mode of oxygen lance when a liquid bath is
formed.

• Hot Heel Operation:

• Some liquid steel (20–25%) is kept in the bottom of the furnace during tapping, which helps
in the faster melting of fresh scrap or sponge iron/HBI feed into the furnace for the next heat.
Since sponge iron/HBI is non-conductive material, that required hot heel for initial melting
in EAF.

• Bottom Stirring:
• In convectional arc furnaces, there is little natural electrical turbulence within the bath. Due
to the absence of stirring, large piece of scrap can take a long time to melt and may require
oxygen lancing.
• Bottom stirring is accomplished by injecting an inert gas through the porous plug in the
bottom of the EAF to increase the heat transfer in the melt.
• Inert gas stirring eliminates temperature and concentration gradients, shortens tap-to-tap
times, reduces power, electrode and refractory consumption and improves yield of iron and
alloys.

• Eccentric Bottom Tapping:

• Eccentric bottom tapping with the use of a slide gate ensures almost slag-free liquid metal
tapping in the teeming ladle. Eccentric bottom tapping reduces tap times, temperature losses
and slag carry-over into ladle.
• Automatic Alloy Feeder:
• With increasing size of EAF, the net addition has increased in proportion. For meeting
specifications of products, the additions must be made more accurately. For these reasons,
automatic weighting of additions as per the auto-control directions is made.

• Fifth Hole:
• Nowadays fifth hole in the roof is common for bigger furnaces for continuous charging of
sponge iron/HBI. Due to uniform size of sponge, HBI can be charged continuously. Fifth hole
may be: (i) at the delta region of three electrodes or (ii) at in between electrode and
periphery of the roof.
• Process Modification:
• Foamy Slag Practice:
• Slag foaming has been used in electric arc furnaces (EAF) to protect the refractory materials
from the radiation of heat generated by electrodes, decrease the noise level and improve
productivity and the energy efficiency of the process.
• Slag foaming has an important impact on the thermal efficiency, tapping time and refractory
lining/electrodes consumption of the EAF.
• Foamy slag covers the arc and metal surface to reduce radiation heat losses.
• Foamy slag can be produced by injection carbon (granular coal) and oxygen or by lancing
oxygen only when charging of sponge iron/HBI (which contains high carbon) is done.
• Foamy slag prevents radiation heating to the furnace wall from arc. By covering the arc in a
layer of slag, the arc is shielded, and more energy is transferred to the bath; due to that rate
of melting of scrap increases.
• The effectiveness of slag foaming depends on slag basicity, FeO content of slag, slag
temperature and availability of carbon to react with either oxygen or FeO of slag.
• Slag foaming increases the power efficiency by at least 20% in spite of a higher arc voltage.
The energy savings are estimated at 5–7 kWh/t.
• Foamy slag practice increases productivity as decreasing the tap-to-tap times. Emission
reduction of 10.6 kg CO2 /t steel is estimated.

• Blowing Oxygen:
• Blowing oxygen in molten steel releases heat because the reactions of oxygen with silicon,
carbon and iron in molten metal are exothermic and produces heat. Melting time reduces,
and the productivity is increased. Power, electrode and refractory consumption are
decreased.
• Earlier lancing operations were carried out manually using consumable lance pipe. Modern
operations are carried out by using of automatic, non-consumable, water-cooled lance for
injecting oxygen into the steel. These lances also have the capability to inject carbon as well.
• Carbon Injection:
• Injection of carbon has benefits (i) when carbon content of the bath is insufficient to produce
CO gas for foaming slag, and (ii) carbon oxidation produces CO gas which on post-
combustion generates thermal energy.
• It is to be noted that carbon injection also requires oxygen injection for carbon oxidation.

• Scrap Pre-heating:
• Scrap pre-heating is performed by hot flue gases either in the scrap charging baskets, in a
charging shaft before added to the EAF, or in a specially designed scrap conveying system
allowing continuous charging during the melting process.
• The twenty per cent of EAF’s energy normally leaving the furnace in the hot waste gas
represents about 130 kWh/t of steel produced.
• Using this hot gas to preheat the scrap being charged to the EAF can result in recovering
some of this energy and to reduce some of the electrical energy required to melt steel scrap.
• Additional advantages for scrap pre-heating include:
• (i) increased productivity, (ii) removal of moisture from the scrap, (iii) reduced electrode
consumption and (iv) reduced refractory consumption.
• Scrap pre-heating can be saved energy consumption of melting by 4–50 kWh/t and reduces
tap-to-tap times by 8–10 min.
• Charge Modification:
• Use of Sponge Iron:
• Scrap is an extremely heterogeneous by-product, and its quality varies from region to region,
type to type and lot to lot.
• To match demand for high-quality product, steelmakers must start with high quality of scrap.
The non-availability of scrap of consistent quality and at a reasonable price necessitated the
search for a suitable alternative to scrap.
• In this context, sponge iron is the best alternative to scrap as charging material in EAF.
Sponge iron has uniform chemical and physical characteristics.
• Main advantages of sponge iron are:
(i) Uniform composition,
(ii) Uniform size,
(iii) Very low tramp elements (0.02%) with respect to scrap (0.13–0.73%) and
(iv) Low sulphur.
• Since sponge iron has poor thermal conductivity, it is always charged after initially getting
molten pool, i.e. producing hot heel by initial melting of steel scrap.
• The usual practice is to charge a basket of scrap which representing from 20 to 50% of total
charge, to melt that scrap partially to create a molten pool and then to feed sponge iron at a
particular rate.
• 100% sponge iron charge is achieved by keeping a heel of molten metal (about 20–25%) in
the furnace after tapping and then feeding sponge iron for a new heat. Tramp elements can
be controlled in the steel bath by 100% sponge iron charge.
• Continuously, charging of sponge iron with metallization of 90–95% and carbon content of
1.8% leads to a foamy slag without addition of further carbon.
• The carbon reacts with unreduced iron oxide (i.e. FeO) giving CO gas evolution from liquid
bath, i.e. carbon boil:
• The amount of carbon required (in kg) to reduce the FeO content of the sponge iron is as
follows:
• where M is the degree of metallization, Sl is the amount of slag and Fe is the amount of iron in
the slag.
• Metallization of sponge iron has an important factor in steelmaking, and increasing metallization
of sponge iron decreased the energy consumption for melting of sponge iron in EAF. Sponge iron
having lower metallization value has relatively higher unreduced iron oxide content.

Metallization of sponge iron versus energy consumption in EAF

• Since FeO reduction is an endothermic reaction, and hence, extra energy is consumed. As a
thump rule, loss of 1% of metallization of sponge iron consumes extra energy of 15 kWh/t of
liquid steel.
• As the gangue materials, present in the ore, remain in the sponge iron, the volume of slag is
usually larger when a part of scrap is substituted by sponge iron.
• As the percentage of gangue increases, slag volume is also increased with fixed per cent of
sponge iron charged in EAF.

Effect of gangue in sponge iron on slag weight

• Quality Steel Production by Using Sponge Iron:
• The quality steels are efficiently produced in EAF using steel scrap. Major problem faced by
steelmakers was short supply, fluctuating prices and extremely heterogeneous nature of scrap
in 1980s.
• Over and above, tramp metallic elements (0.13–0.73%) are present in the scrap which is
highly undesirable for production of high-quality steels. Sponge iron/HBI has uniform
chemical and physical characteristics, and it hardly contains any tramp metallic elements
(0.02%) and has low sulphur content.
• The partial/total replacement of scrap by sponge iron/HBI is used as feed materials in EAF
for quality steels production, which ultimately improves the mechanical and metallurgical
properties of the product.

• Charging:
• Charging of sponge iron/HBI in EAF is carried out by (i) batch and (ii) continuous mode.
• (i) Batch charging: When maximum 20–30% sponge iron/HBI to be charged, this can be done
by manually through the door of the furnace; or sometime from the basket. Sponge iron/HBI,
sandwiched between layers of scrap in the basket, is charged in molten steel bath prepared
initially with scrap.
• (ii) Continuous charging: It is done from the roof with the special hole (i.e. fifth hole) on
that, leads to a substantial saving in time and avoids radiation losses. As and when needed,
sponge iron/HBI along with other necessary alloys and slag forming constituents can be fed
directly into the furnace at the point where it is needed most.

• Continuous charging mode has several significant benefits in the operation of the EAF as
follows:
• Less power-off time,
• Lower heat loss,
• Higher power efficiency,
• Improved bath heat transfer and faster metallurgical reactions,
• Combined melting and refining steps,
• Reduced charge to tap time.

• The combined effect of above these is increased furnace productivity and reduced both
electrode and power consumption related to batch charging mode.
• Attaining the best melting results also requires control of the feeding rate of sponge iron.
• The feeding rate is primarily dependent upon the effective power input but is also influence
by the sponge iron/HBI composition, bath temperature and heat losses.
• For a given sponge iron/HBI, EAF is usually calibrated by plotting the change in bath
temperature in unit time as a function of the sponge iron/HBI feeding rate, as shown in the
figure below.
• For most furnaces, constant bath temperature is maintained at the feed rates of sponge
iron/HBI in the range of 27–35 kg/min MW of applied power. The critical feeding rate of
sponge iron/HBI is 33 kg/min MW.
• Feeding rate is very crucial, if the rate is fast, then melt will be chilled; if rate is slow, then
melt is heated up.

• Melting
• initially scrap is charged by basket, and maximum power is applied to melt the initial charge.
When the charge is melted and getting molten pool or hot heel, a temperature of 1570 °C is
attained. Continuous feeding of sponge iron from the fifth hole to the EAF is started. This
also requires full power to be supplied during the melting.
• The slag at the beginning of sponge iron feeding is viscous and acidic; later, it become more
fluid and basic. Irrespective of charging mode (i.e. continuous or batch), sponge iron is
always charged after initially getting molten pool, i.e. hot heel by melting of steel scrap or
remaining liquid metal (20–25%) of earlier heat.
• The greatest benefits of continuous charging are generally attained when the melting of
sponge iron takes place at the slag-metal interface, a condition which necessitates the
sponge iron quickly penetrating the slag layer.
• Failure of a substantial portion of the sponge iron to quickly penetrate the slag layer results
in excessive cooling of the slag with subsequent build-up sponge iron both in and on the slag.
These build-ups, commonly called icebergs or ferrobergs.
• Due to porous nature of sponge iron, sometimes penetration to the slag is difficult by the
lower specific gravity of porous sponge iron (2.4–3.0) than that of furnace slag (3.1–3.3),
and this creates a tendency for the sponge iron to float on the slag.
• This penetration problem can be solved by two ways: (a) to increase the density of the
sponge iron, density of the sponge iron can be increased by making compact to form HBI /
briquetted sponge iron (specific gravity 3.5); or (b) to decrease the density of the slag,
density of the slag can be decreased by making foaming slag (specific gravity 1.0).
• Melting of sponge iron in EAF is also greatly influenced by factors like (i) carbon content
and (ii) degree of metallization of sponge iron.
(i) Carbon content of sponge iron reacts with unreduced iron oxide content of sponge iron
leading to CO gas evolution from liquid bath that causes:
(a) Boiling action in the molten bath to remove of hydrogen and nitrogen gases,
homogenization of the bath and producing cleaned steel by helping to float the inclusions;
(b) as well as producing foaming slag.
• Carbon boil occurs at slag-metal interface by the reaction:
• Foaming slag, which prevents the heat loss of the bath and overheated the refractory wall of
the EAF, is formed due to carbon boil. Therefore, higher carbon content in sponge iron is
always desired, that is why steelmakers always prefer gas-based sponge iron (where carbon
content 1.0–2.5%) instead of coal-based sponge iron (less than 1% C). If carbon is less than
required amount, it must be externally added to the melt.
• The amount of carbon (in Kg) requires for reducing FeO content of the sponge iron:

• where M is the degree of metallization, Sl is the amount of slag and Fe is the amount of iron
in the slag.
• The combination of vigorous carbon boil and deep foaming slag has the following benefits
for EAF operation:
• Lower power consumption,
• Faster melting rate,
• Decrease electrode consumption,
• Longer refractory life and
• Enhance steel quality.

(ii) The degree of metallization varies from 85 to 95% depending on the process adopted for
sponge iron production. Low degree of metallization leads to economic disruption such as
higher energy consumption, higher slag volume, consumes more heat and lower yield during
steelmaking.
• As a thumb rule, 1% decrease in degree of metallization of sponge iron consumes extra
power 15 kWh/t of liquid steel.
• Mechanism of Nitrogen Removal:
• It was established that nitrogen removal from molten bath was possible due to the CO gas
evolution by the carbon oxidation.
• The rate of CO gas evolution from the reduction of FeO in sponge iron/HBI at steelmaking
temperatures is fast, controlled by heat transfer and occurs at relatively low temperatures
ranging between 800 and 1200 °C.
• By means of maintain of reducing atmosphere in the furnace and continuous slag flushing,
the dissolved gases collected in the slag are removed.
• Sponge iron/HBI containing high carbon is the key to maintain of proper slag foaming by
means of CO gas evolution throughout the heat.

• Advantages of Using Sponge Iron in EAF:

• Low power consumption: Melting is achieved with longer arc using a higher voltage. Since
melting and refining are done simultaneously, overall power consumption decreases.
• Faster melting time: Foaming (low density) slag allows rapid penetration of sponge iron to
the slag-metal interface and enhances heat transfer.
• Decrease electrode consumption: Furnace atmosphere is rich in CO gas, which decreases
oxidation of electrode, as well as decrease in electrode breakage due to tilting of scrap.
• Longer refractory life: EAF can be operated at full power without serious refractory wear
because arc radiation is absorbed by the foamy slag.
• Enhance steel quality: CO gas evolved at the slag-metal interface (as carbon boil) removes
nitrogen and hydrogen gases from the bath and improves slag-metal mixing to help removal
of sulphur and phosphorus from the bath.
• Use of Hot Sponge Iron:
• Transport of the hot sponge iron in an inert atmosphere is a key technology to the achievement of
these benefits. The difficulty in hot sponge iron transport is not just that the material is hot, but also
that it must be kept in an inert atmosphere to avoid oxidation of sponge iron.
• Midrex has developed three methods [i.e. (i) HOTLINK, (ii) hot transport conveyor and (iii) hot
transport vessels] for discharging the sponge iron at elevated temperature, transporting it in hot
condition to the melting shop, and charging it to the EAF at 600–700 °C.
• Hot charging of sponge iron at 600–700 °C is an effective means of lowering the cost of production
per tonne of liquid steel due to the reduction of power (25%) and electrode consumption.
• The electrical energy savings occur because less energy is required in the EAF to heat the sponge
iron to melting temperature. The rule of thumb is that power consumption can be reduced about 20
kWh/t liquid steel for each 100 °C (373 K) increase in temperature of hot sponge iron. Thus, the
savings of electrical energy consumption, when charging of sponge iron at over 600 °C, are 120
kWh/t or more.
• An additional benefit of the power savings is a reduction in electrode consumption since
there is a linear relationship with power consumption. Generally, electrode consumption is
0.004 kg/kWh. Electrode consumption decreases 0.3 kg/t. In addition to the power and
electrode savings, hot charging will also increase EAF productivity.
• Use of hot sponge iron reduces the tap-to-tap time, allowing a productivity increase of up to
20% versus charging at ambient temperature. Hot sponge iron is transferred from the vessel
into the furnace through the chute.
• The benefits of charging hot sponge iron have been known for many years. Essar Steel, India
began experimenting with hot sponge iron transport in 1999 on a small scale. Since mid-
1999, the production and use of hot sponge iron have increased continuously up to 100% hot
sponge iron charges in DC-EAF.
• Main advantages of hot charging of sponge iron to the EAF as follows:
1. Decrease moisture in feed materials,
2. Energy saving by lowering electrical energy consumption, because less energy is required in
the EAF to heat the sponge iron up to melting temperature.
3. Decrease in electrode consumption,
4. Increase productivity and yield, due to shortening overall melting time and tap-to-tap time.
• Use of Hot Metal in EAF:
• Steelmakers had been trying to look at methods of steelmaking which could use its existing EAF,
LF, caster route to increase the productivity significantly, and reduce dependence on electric
power.
• Hot metal charging into EAF provides additional sensible heat to the furnace, thus leading to
power saving and improving productivity.
• Hot metal can be charged from the roof as well as through launder from slag door.
• Hot metal contains high carbon and silicon which are the supplier of chemical energies due to
that power consumption of EAF drastically reduced.
• The energy content of hot metal consists of both sensible and chemical heat. The sensible heat of
hot metal is given by the linear relationship

• where qHM is the sensible heat of hot metal, kWh/t; and T is the hot metal temperature, °C.
• Uses of 50% hot metal in the charge of EAF have saved power of 300 kWh/t, and heat time
comes down to 80 min with oxygen blowing of about 40 Nm3/t.
• By using hot metal in EAF:
(i) Energy consumption can be reduced,
(ii) Shorter power-on times,
(iii) Scrap shortage can be overcome.
(iv) Tap-to-tap can be decreased.
(v) Reduced electrode consumption and
(vi) Productivity can be increased drastically, i.e. more number heats can be made per day.
• Benefits of using hot metal (3.8–4.2% C, 0.6–0.8% Si, 0.11% max P and 0.08% max S) in
EAF are shown below
• Use of Iron Carbide in EAF:
• The iron carbide is injected with carrier gas (nitrogen/argon) through pipes submerged in
steel bath at rates ranging from 90 to 450 kg/min. The carbide injection with oxygen is
advantaged of the heat generation and thus lowers the electricity consumption.
• With 11% carbide, yield rises from 93 to 95.5%, while 35% carbide, total melting time
decreased from 47 to 40 min. Power consumption decreased from 450 to 380 kWh/t with rise
in carbide proportion from 0 to 35%, due to present of high carbon content (6.0–6.5%) in
carbide.
• No additional carbon charge was needed for carbon boil, and no pre-heating of carbide was
necessary. Good bath boil resulted in foaming slag with decreasing FeO content from 24 to
15% and nitrogen level from 82 to 34 ppm.
 DC Arc Furnace

• Single-electrode direct current (DC) arc furnace (DC-EAF) is used for faster melting. Essar
Steel, India, also used DC-EAF for more than 20 years.
• The main feature of the DC arc furnace is a single graphite electrode acting as cathode, with
a conductive bottom together with the charge acting as anode.

Basic concepts of Iron and steel making

• Electric current flows down from the electrode to an anode mounted in the bottom of the
furnace. Due to conductive bottom of the DC-EAF, the arc burns vertically from the electrode
to the bath.

• Principle:
• In DC-EAF, centrally located electrode projecting through the roof is connected to the
negative pole (i.e. act as cathode). The positive pole is connected to a bottom electrode
which is in direct contact with the iron melts or steel billets which act as anode.

• Charging:
• The method of charging of raw materials in DC-EAF greatly influences the melting and
refining operations, power, time utilization and productivity of the furnace. There are two
types of charging methods: (i) batch charging and (ii) continuous charging.
• (i) Batch charging is done by buckets and mainly adopted in case of swing-roof type furnace.
Charging materials consist of generally scrap, but from time to time sponge iron/HBI is also
preferred.
(ii) Continuous charging can be adopted only for sponge iron/HBI which has uniform sizes.
The main advantages of continuous charging are substantial saving in time and avoid
radiation losses. It can be continuously charged from the charging hole in the roof of the
furnace as follows:
(a) Single hole in the roof between the electrode and sidewall.

• Operation:
• The shell of DC-EAF is made of a large copper plate bolted to the furnace bottom and
serving as the contact plate conducting the direct current to the bottom.
• On the top of the copper plate is the electrically conductive hearth consisting of magnesite–
graphite bricks lining of one-meter thickness.
• To ensure a good electrical contact between the charge and the bottom, the furnace is
operated with a liquid heel.
• There are two types of arc produced between electrode and scrap: (i) short and fat arc and
(ii) Long and thin arc.

• Long arc operation with foaming slag to shield the arc and to improve heat transfer to the
charge had been adopted by AC-EAF melting shops. DC-EAF melting involves the same
technique. Longer arcs can be used in DC-EAF operation since the single electrode is
centrally located in the furnace and the DC arc is burning vertically towards the bath.
• The result is a more uniform heating pattern in a DC-EAF than in an AC-EAF, where the
three arcs repel each other by magnetic forces creating a concentration of arc heat outside
each electrode

Heat distribution pattern. (a) AC, (b) DC arc furnaces

• The electrode tip wear depends mainly on the temperature. The anode temperature in an
arc is always considerably higher than that of the cathode.
• The average temperature of AC-EAF is higher than in DC-EAF operation, where the
single suspended electrode is always the cathode. Thus, the electrode tip wear is reduced
in case of DC-EAF.
• With the development of electrode saving system, the oxidation loss of the electrode is
further reduced. It consists of electrode cooling by means of a water film on the electrode
surface that is exposed to atmosphere.
• DC-EAF has a centrally positioned electrode, so that the distance between the arc and
the refractory lining is constant over the complete circumference of the furnace.
• The electrode to wall distance is also large and with a vertical arc, and this reduces the
refractory wear.
• Difference Between AC and DC:
• The mechanism for power transfer to the charge is quite different. In the AC furnace, the
arc is struck between the electrodes (3 in numbers) and the charge. The current passes
through the charge and returns via a second arc to the electrodes.
• In the case of DC furnace, the electrode (single) acts as the cathode and the anode, a
conductive bottom, is a bottom electrode which is billet, metal fin or metal pin type.
Current flows from the electrode through the cold scrap, to the cathode.
• The control scheme is quite different, being current controlled in the AC furnace and
voltage controlled in the DC furnace. The arc length is 30–50 cm in an AC furnace and
90–120 cm in the DC furnace.
 Induction Melting Furnace

• Principle:
• An induction furnace is an electrical furnace in which the heat is applied by induction heating
of metal. Induction furnace is operated by utilizing a strong magnetic field created by passing
of an electric current through a coil wrapped around the furnace.

• This electric current creates an electromagnetic field that passes through the refractory
material and couples with the conductive metallic charge inside the furnace.
• The magnetic field intern creates a voltage across, the subsequently secondary current through
Basic concepts of Iron and steel making
the metal to be melted. The electrical resistance is given by the metal that produces heat to
melt the metal and helps it to reach the high temperature.
• The primary circuit of the induction furnace is formed by the coil, and the secondary circuit
is the crucible or, rather, the metallic charge in it.
• The lines of magnetic force link through the metallic charge and induce eddy current in it,
and the latter generates heat. The magnetic field and the electro dynamic forces are acting in
the crucible of an induction furnace.
• An induction furnace consists of a non-conductive crucible holding the charge of metal to be
melted, surrounded by a coil of copper wire. A powerful alternating current flows through the
wire. The coil creates a rapidly reversing magnetic field that penetrates the metal. The
magnetic field induces eddy currents, circular electric currents, inside the metal, by
electromagnetic induction. The eddy currents, flowing through the electrical resistance of the
bulk metal, heat it by Joule heating.
• Once melted, the eddy currents cause vigorous stirring of the melt, assuring good mixing.
• Raw Material:
• The main raw material for induction furnaces is steel scrap, cast iron and sponge iron/HBI.
India is the only country where use of induction furnaces contributes a large share (more
than 30%) in annual crude steel production.
• The amount of sponge iron in the charge mix varies from 0 to 90% depending on its
availability and economics of production. Majority of the steel produced through induction
furnace route is plain carbon steel and construction quality steel, i.e. structural steel.
• It is recommended that mild steel scrap should be cleaned and properly sized before
charging in the furnaces. Many medium-frequency induction melting furnaces units are pre-
heating the charge before charging.
• Higher carbon content in bath can also be removed by using sponge iron because it contains
certain amount of unreduced iron oxide (i.e. FeO) that oxygen of FeO reacts with the carbon
from the bath to form CO gas which creates boiling action of the bath.
• Due to the boiling action: (i) homogenized the bath, (ii) easy to remove dissolved gases (like
nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.) and (iii) inclusions are separated out.
• The chemistry of making mild steel ingots can be controlled easily in the induction furnaces
by judicious use of scrap, sponge iron and certain Ferro-alloys.
• At present, the structural steel of good quality is produced by the induction furnace. In India,
majority of the induction furnaces are operated using acidic lining of silica-based ramming
mass to produce structural steel where phosphorous and sulphur are not removed.

• Operation:
• In induction furnace steelmaking, no direct oxygen is introduced in the bath. The impurities
are oxidized by introducing FeO in the bath. (mill scales and CaO is used for P removal)
• The requirement of FeO for slag formation and oxidation of various elements is fulfilled by
addition of sponge iron or mill scale. Thus, the presence of FeO is important as it
corresponds to oxygen potential of the slag.
• Removal of phosphorous takes place by oxidation. The product, P2O5 is being held by basic
constituents, like CaO, present in the slag.
• In steelmaking processes, basicity of the slag is maintained by addition of calcined lime.
• Mixture of sponge iron, cast iron and steel scrap can be successfully melted in the IMF lined
with MgO-based lining. Phosphorous can be removed in IMF by maintaining required
basicity and FeO in the slag.

• Merit and Limitation:

• The greatest advantage of the induction furnace is its low capital cost when compared with
other types of melting furnaces i.e. EAF.
• Its installation is relatively easier, and its operation is simpler.
• Among other advantages, there is very little heat loss from the furnace as the bath is
constantly covered and there is practically no noise during its operation.
• The liquid metal in the induction furnace is circulated automatically by electromagnetic
action so that when Ferro-alloy additions are made, a homogeneous product is ensured in
minimum time.
• The advantage of the induction furnace is a clean, energy-efficient and well-controllable
melting process compared to most other means of metal melting.
• An advantage of induction heating is that the heat is generated within the furnace’s charge
itself rather than applied by a burning fuel or other external heat source.

• Limitations:
• One of the most critical problems with the induction furnaces is its limitation to refine steel
to reduce phosphorous content below the desired limits. Higher phosphorous and pickup of
nitrogen during induction melting make the final steel product hard and brittle and unstable
for many critical applications.
• The main limitation in maintaining quality of structural steel is controlling the quantum of
phosphorus in steel produced through induction furnace route.
• In this route, the steel retains phosphorous in the range of 0.045% to as high as 0.09%
depending on the quality of raw materials.
• The main source of phosphorous in induction furnace is sponge iron and cast iron, the
quality of which is directly related to quality of iron ore.
• The removal of phosphorous takes place by oxidation. The product of the oxidation is held in
combination with basic constituents in the slag. The extent of the removal is governed by the
metal, slag composition and temperature.
• Refining the steel with oxygen lancing in induction furnace is difficult as the furnace is
operated under full volume condition.
• Magnesia-based basic lining and alumina-based neutral lining have also been used in
induction furnaces. The main limitation with alumina lining is its cost which is almost 10–15
times higher compared to silica.
Difference Between EAF Versus IMF

• Induction furnace differs from electric arc furnaces in the following ways. As compared to arc
furnaces, induction melting furnaces (IMF) do possess the following characteristics:
• High, relatively narrow melting vessel (i.e. low d/h ratio),
• Low crucible wall thickness,
• Relatively small area of liquid metal in contact with slag,
• Lower slag temperature,
• No carburizing during melting down,
• Powerful bath agitation.

• The IMF has the following technical advantages over EAF:

• It is possible to melt very low carbon steel, since there are no electrodes.
• Liquid steel contains very low in gases, due to absence of arcing.
• Furnace productivity is high, since very low oxidation of alloying elements.
• Temperature of the process can be controlled quite accurately.
• Metallic yields are higher.
• Capital expenditure and space requirement are lower.
• Induction furnace is suitable for charging addition at any time due to the characteristics of
the bath agitation.
• Process is relatively cleaner and lesser environment related expenditure.
• The comparison of the operating parameters of IMF with those of EAF is given below:

• Disadvantages of induction melting furnace are as follows:

• Slag is heated only by the bath, and this may not be enough for it to melt.
• Requirement of minimal wall thickness of the refractory lining is having risk of crack
formation, resulting in stoppage of operations.
• It requires more quality of scrap.
• Refining of liquid metal is restricted in general and in particular de-phosphorization and de-
sulphurization are restricted due to refractory wear.
• Induction furnaces of very high capacities are not available.
• Applications:
• Induction furnaces are made in a wide range of sizes from less than one kg to one hundred
tonnes and are used to melt pig iron and steel, non-ferrous metals (i.e. copper, aluminum and
precious metals etc.).
• Products made with the induction furnace melting by the industry include mild steel
ingots/billets for structural purposes, stainless steel ingots/billets for making utensils, wire
rods and wires, low alloy steel castings, etc.
 Novel Steel Making Technologies

• CONARC Process: (Bhushan steels- Jharsiguda and JSW Dolvi)

• This process is developed in 1990s due to: (i) shortage of steel scrap, (ii) rising costs as well
as unreliable supply of electric power and (iii) low productivity and higher power
consumption with respect to developed countries. These problems can be overcome by using
hot metal as well as chemical energy content in EAF to produce steel at lower costs.
• Nowadays, world steel production is shared by two major processes: LD/BOF and EAF.
Basic chemistry of steelmaking is nearly similar in both these processes, but they differ from
one another in several ways.
• Characterization of LD/BOF process:
(i) Ability to generate heat energy (i.e. heat of reaction) within itself for meeting process
requirement,
(ii) Hot metal and scrap (20–25%) as the common burden materials and
(iii) Short tap-to-tap time resulting in high productivity.
• Characterization of EAF process:
(i) Solid scrap and/or sponge iron/HBI as the common burden materials,
(ii) Require external energy (i.e. electric energy) for the melting,
(iii) Productivity slightly lower than LD/BOF process.

• These two dissimilar technologies have merged under a set of special circumstances
develops a new technology. This new process which is half BOF and half EAF, i.e. combines
oxygen converter and electric arc furnace technologies, termed as Electroxy/CONARC
process.
• CONARC is combining the conventional converter process with electric arc steelmaking in a
furnace unit having two identical vessels.
• One vessel operates in the converter mode using the top lance, while the other vessel operates
in the arc furnace mode with graphite electrodes.
• CONARC process is a twin vessel of EAF, which economically handles raw materials input of
solids and hot metal in varying proportions. The above figure shows the left vessel is working as
a converter and the right one as EAF.
• The furnace is equipped with graphite electrodes connected with transformer, which can be
moved from one vessel to the other. Oxygen is guided into the melt by water-cooled top lance
system, which also can be moved from one vessel to the other.

• Charging:
• Scrap is first charged, roof is closed and electrodes are introduced to start melting. For faster
melting, oxygen lancing is performed to cut the heavy scrap. After liquid pool is formed,
insertion of launder takes place through the door. Hot metal is then poured smoothly at the rate
of 10 t/min into the vessel.
• Operation:
• The process starts with charging of scrap, and the solid charge is melted by electric energy
with the help of graphite electrodes to form a liquid heel. Now this vessel acts as EAF. The
electrodes are removed, and hot metal is poured into that vessel.
• As soon as the top lance is being brought into position, the oxygen blowing is started; now
vessel acts as converter. The impurities of hot metal (i.e. C, Si, Mn and P) are oxidized and
generating large amount of heat (i.e. chemical energy).
• After bath temperature and composition adjustment, the top lance is removed away and
tapping of liquid melt takes place. The tap-to-tap time was reduced by optimizing the furnace
operation to 60 min in average (for 170 t furnace), so that the capability to produce more
than 20 heats per day.
• The energy consumption was dropped to approximately 310 kWh/t (for 50% hot metal + 50%
sponge iron).
• Small part of the melt kept in the furnace for charging of sponge iron. The electrodes are
brought back into operation positions to melt the solid charge (i.e. scrap/sponge iron).
• When one vessel act as converter to remove impurities from melt, then on the same time
other vessel act as EAF to melt the solid charge.
• The CONARC process fulfils a maximum flexibility in a raw material charging. The furnace
can be operated in the range of 100% hot metal to 100% sponge iron/scrap.

• Advantages of the process:

• Wide range of charging can be done: 100% scrap, 100% sponge iron, 100% hot metal, or
50% scrap/sponge iron +50% hot metal, etc.
• Decrease tap-to-tap time: 57–64 min, i.e. increase productivity,
• More than 20 heats/day is possible.
• Electric energy consumption drops from 450–500 kWh/t to 310 kWh/t (for 50% hot metal
+50% sponge iron).
• Independence from scrap shortage and its price fluctuations,
• By off-gas heat, scrap can be pre-heated.
• Major cost saving,
• Low P (<0.01%), low S (0.013%) and low C (0.003–0.04%) steel can be produced.

• Energy Optimizing Furnace (EOF): (Jaiswal Nico, Raipur)

• Developed in Brazil for replacing small, uneconomic open-hearth furnaces about 35 years
ago, the Energy Optimizing Furnace (EOF) was conceived to utilize the sensible heat of
small and medium sized steel converters in an effective way.
• The EOF is essentially an oxygen steelmaking vessel which employs extensively side blowing
of oxygen and also provides options for auxiliary fuel (solid or liquid) injection.
• Oxygen is injected horizontally into the molten bath from the sides through specially
designed, submerged tuyeres; and oxygen is blown above the bath through water-cooled
injectors.
• The process is capable of handling solid, liquid or mixed charges; and there is no
requirement of electric energy for melting.
• EOF is a combination of three independent interconnected reactors namely, furnace to
produce steel, preheater to heat the scrap and a recuperator to recover waste heat and reuse
by heating oxygen.
• Furnace Design:
• The furnace is water cooled refractory lined chamber with provision to inject oxygen below
the molten metal bath for refining and above the bath surface to burn CO and CO 2 inside the
furnace so that part of the heat is used for refining and remainder for preheating the scrap.
• oxygen can be injected both at high speed to promote decarburization at low speed to
promote post combustion.

• Preheater:
• Scrap preheater placed immediately above the furnace is provided with water cooled tilting
fingers to support the solid metallic charge which is heated by the furnace off-gas. At the
time of scrap charging, the fingers tilt and release the preheated scrap into the EOF bottom.
• The gases pass off the refining zone at around 1300-1350ºC and preheat the scrap to 800-
900ºC. The exit gas temperature is around 350ºC. This is good enough to preheat the
incoming oxygen and hence the remaining heat in the off gases is transferred to the oxygen
in a recuperator.
• The preheated oxygen is blown in the furnace for refining as well as burning the CO.
• For scrap preheating residence time (RT) of the waste gas in the preheater is given by:

RT = = 0.785

• Recuperator:
• Recuperator is a counter current heat exchanger in which hot metal gases at 700-800ºC from
the scrap preheater enters and exit gases leave at 350ºC and oxygen enters at 25ºC and
preheated oxygen enters the furnace.
• The efficiency of the heat exchanger depends on the flow velocity of hot gas and oxygen. For
a given cross-section of the flow passage of the recuperator, the length of the recuperator
must be optimized so that heat transfer from the furnace gases is max to preheat the
incoming oxygen.
• Basic Characteristics of EOF:
• Standard capacities of EOF are available in capacities 30/40 t, 60/ 80 t and 100/ 120 t.
• Hearth surface is 6.6 to 22 m2
• Shell diameter is around 5.3 to 7.5m
• Total height from working platform to top level =17 to 25 m
• No. of scrap-preheater staged 1to 2 Tilting tapping angle 80

• Consumption of raw materials/ ton of liquid steel :

• Hot metal and scrap+ pig iron are charged in 70% :30% proportion
• Lime 45 kg/t (depending on P content of HM)
• O2 is consumed at 50-70 N cu.m./t
• Fuel consumption is 5-10 M cal/t
• Tapping- 1700℃ without ladle furnace and 1650℃ with ladle furnace.
• Furnace Operation:
• The basic principle consists of working with combined submerged and atmospheric oxygen blow
in an initial charge containing hot metal, preheated solid scrap and fluxes for slag formation.
• The operation starts with injection of carbon in the hot metal until 3 % carbon is achieved. This
is followed by charging of the preheated scrap and refining commences immediately.
• Submerged oxygen reacts with carbon from hot metal and generates CO bubble that travel
through the liquid bath to the furnace atmosphere. Here CO is burnt to CO2 by the oxygen blown
through atmospheric injectors and supersonic lances.
• The bubbling of CO generates a very strong stirring and allows transfer of a good amount of
heat to the bath.
• The tapped steel will have similar chemistry as combined blowing steel making process.
Dephosphorization up to 0.008% and Desulphurization up to 0.025 %.
• The tilting angle for tapping is up to 8º, the tapping temperature is 1700ºC and the tap to tap
time is 30-50min.
• Advantages of EOF process:
1. Low investment and operating cost.
2. Flexibility in terms of metallic charge.
3. Good metallurgical control of carbon, phosphorous and sulphur.
4. High productivity and furnace availability.
5. Low inclusions due to continuous flushing of slag during blowing and slag-free tapping.
6. Decreasing electric energy consumption (25–45 kWh/t) and
7. Very low noise level and emissions.

• Steel quality aspects

1. Due to continuous slag flushing, turndown P can be obtained up to 0.008% and S up to 0.025%.
2. High % hot metal produces a product with very low tramp elements, Advantages for die forging
steels, special clean steels and steels for seamless piper etc.
3. High CO partial pressure during the blow leads to very low N and H content in steel at
turndown.
THE END