Physical Layer

Purpose of the Physical

Layer
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Connection
• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must
be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple NICs (Wired and/or
Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
The Physical Layer
• Transports bits across the network
media
• Accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link Layer and encodes it
as a series of signals that are
transmitted to the local media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to the
destination receives the bits and
re-encapsulates the frame, then
decides what to do with it.
Physical Layer
Characteristics
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Layer Standards
Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Components
Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:
• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling
The Physical Components are the hardware devices, media, and other
connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
• Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and
cable designs are all specified in standards associated with the physical layer.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Encoding

• Encoding converts the stream of bits

into a format recognizable by the next
device in the network path.
• This ‘coding’ provides predictable
patterns that can be recognized by the
next device.
• Examples of encoding methods
include Manchester (shown in the
figure), 4B/5B, and 8B/10B.
Physical Layer Characteristics
Signaling

• The signaling method is how the bit values, Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
“1” and “0” are represented on the physical
medium.
• The method of signaling will vary based on
the type of medium being used.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data.
• Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how many bits can be transmitted in a second.
• Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics play a role
in determining available bandwidth.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth

Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps

Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps

Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps – 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps

Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

Physical Layer Characteristics
Bandwidth Terminology
Latency
• Amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to
another
Throughput
• The measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time
Goodput
• The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time
• Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead
Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Characteristics of Copper Cabling
Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. It is inexpensive, easy
to install, and has low resistance to electrical current flow.
Limitations:
• Attenuation – the longer the electrical signals have to travel, the weaker they get.
• The electrical signal is susceptible to interference from two sources, which can
distort and corrupt the data signals (Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI) and Crosstalk).
Mitigation:
• Strict adherence to cable length limits will mitigate attenuation.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate EMI and RFI by using metallic shielding and
grounding.
• Some kinds of copper cable mitigate crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit pair
wires together.
Copper Cabling
Types of Copper Cabling
Copper Cabling
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• UTP is the most common networking
media.
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices.

Key Characteristics of UTP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage.
2. Twisted pairs protect the signal from
interference.
3. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair.
Copper Cabling
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) • Better noise protection than UTP
• More expensive than UTP
• Harder to install than UTP
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
• Interconnects hosts with intermediary
network devices

Key Characteristics of STP

1. The outer jacket protects the copper
wires from physical damage
2. Braided or foil shield provides
EMI/RFI protection
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires
provides EMI/RFI protection
4. Color-coded plastic insulation
electrically isolates the wires from
each other and identifies each pair
Copper Cabling
Coaxial Cable
Consists of the following:
1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor physical
damage
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic foil, acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the
inner conductor.
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
4. A copper conductor is used to transmit the
electronic signals.

There are different types of connectors used with coax

cable.

Commonly used in the following situations:

• Wireless installations - attach antennas to wireless
devices
• Cable internet installations - customer premises
wiring
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling
Properties of UTP Cabling
UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper wires
twisted together and encased in a flexible plastic
sheath. No shielding is used. UTP relies on the
following properties to limit crosstalk:
• Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of wires uses opposite
polarity. One wire is negative, the other wire is positive.
They are twisted together and the magnetic fields
effectively cancel each other and outside EMI/RFI.
• Variation in twists per foot in each wire - Each wire is
twisted a different amount, which helps prevent
crosstalk amongst the wires in the cable.
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and
Connectors
Standards for UTP are established by the
TIA/EIA(Telecommunication Industry Association/Electronic
Industry Alliance). TIA/EIA-568 standardizes elements like:
• Cable Types
• Cable Lengths
• Connectors
• Cable Termination
• Testing Methods

Electrical standards for copper cabling are established by the IEEE,

which rates cable according to its performance. Examples include:
• Category 3
• Category 5 and 5e
• Category 6
UTP Cabling
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors (Cont.)

RJ-45 Connector Poorly terminated UTP cable

Properly terminated UTP cable

RJ-45 Socket
UTP Cabling
Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

Cable Type Standard Application

Ethernet Straight-through Both ends T568A or T568B Host to Network Device

Ethernet Crossover * One end T568A, other end T568B Host-to-Host, Switch-to-Switch, Router-to-
Router
* Considered Legacy due to most NICs using Auto-MDIX to sense cable type and complete connection
Rollover Cisco Proprietary Host serial port to Router or Switch
Console Port, using an adapter
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
• Not as common as UTP because of the expense involved
• Ideal for some networking scenarios
• Transmits data over longer distances at higher bandwidth than any other networking
media
• Less susceptible to attenuation, and completely immune to EMI/RFI
• Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of very pure glass
• Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses of light
• The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to transmit light between the two ends with
minimal signal loss
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Types of Fiber Media
Single-Mode Fiber Multimode Fiber

• Larger core
• Very small core
• Uses less expensive LEDs
• Uses expensive lasers
• LEDs transmit at different angles
• Long-distance applications
• Up to 10 Gbps over 550 meters

Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater dispersion than SMF, with a the maximum cable
distance for MMF is 550 meters.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:

1. Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting

infrastructure devices
2. Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes and
small businesses
3. Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
4. Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions
capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic distances.

Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within the enterprise.
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber-Optic Connectors

Lucent Connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber Patch Cords

SC-SC MM Patch Cord LC-LC SM Patch Cord ST-LC MM Patch Cord ST-SC SM Patch Cord

A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables .
Fiber-Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s

Distance Relatively short (1 - 100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

Wireless Media
Wireless Media
Properties of Wireless Media
It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or microwave
frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless connection numbers
continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:

• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical
characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by many common
devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media,
so anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can send or
receive at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in reduced
bandwidth for each user.
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction

Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband wireless access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications, primarily for
Internet of Things (IoT) applications
Wireless Media
Wireless LAN
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users and connect
to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability to network
hosts

There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN equipment, ensure
compatibility, and interoperability.

Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies and
processes to protect WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.