Chapter 1

Introduction
 Chapter 1 Objectives

• Know the difference between computer

organization and computer architecture.
• Understand units of measure common to computer
systems.
• Understand the computer as a layered system.
• Be able to explain the von Neumann architecture
and the function of basic computer components.

2
 1.1 Overview

Why study computer organization and

architecture?
– Design better programs, including system software
such as compilers, operating systems, and device
drivers.
– Optimize program behavior.
– Evaluate (benchmark) computer system
performance.
– Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.

3
 1.1 Overview
• Computer architecture (HW+ISA)
– can be considered as a catalogue of tools or attributes that are visible
to the user such as instruction sets, number of bits used for data,
addressing techniques, etc.
– Logical aspects of system implementation as seen by the programmer.
– Visible for the programmer
– Have direct impact on the execution of instruction
– E.g., instruction sets, instruction formats, data types, addressing modes, no bits to
represent different data type, IO mechanism,
– How do I design a computer?

• Computer organization
– defines the way system is structured so that all those catalogued tools
can be used. The significant components of Computer organization are
ALU, CPU, memory and memory organization.
– Encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.
– Operational units & their interconnections.
– Hardware detail transparent to programmers.
– E.g., circuit design, control signals, memory types, interface between compute and
peripheral 4
– How does a computer work?
Computer Architecture Computer Organization
Computer Architecture is concerned with Computer Organization is concerned with
the way hardware components are the structure and behaviour of a computer
connected together to form a computer system as seen by the user.
system.
It acts as the interface between hardware It deals with the components of a
and software. connection in a system.
Computer Architecture helps us to Computer Organization tells us how exactly
understand the functionalities of a system. all the units in the system are arranged and
interconnected.
A programmer can view architecture in Whereas Organization expresses the
terms of instructions, addressing modes realization of architecture.
and registers.

While designing a computer system An organization is done on the basis of

architecture is considered first. architecture.
Computer Architecture deals with high-level Computer Organization deals with low-level
design issues. design issues.
Architecture involves Logic (Instruction Organization involves Physical Components
5
sets, Addressing modes, Data types, Cache (Circuit design, Adders, Signals,
optimization) Peripherals)
• There is no clear distinction between matters
related to computer organization and matters
relevant to computer architecture.
• Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and
Software:
– Anything that can be done with software can
also be done with hardware, and anything that
can be done with hardware can also be done
with software.*

* Assuming speed is not a concern.

6
Functional Units Digital Systems
• A computer consists of four main components
namely, Input unit, Central Processing Unit,
Memory unit and an Output unit
• The central processing unit consists of
Arithmetic & logical unit, Control unit and
Register.
• Functional units of a computer system are
parts of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) that
performs the operations and calculations
called for by the computer program.

7
 Basic operational Concepts
• The primary function of a computer system is to execute a
program, sequence of instructions.
• To perform the execution of an instruction, in addition to the
arithmetic logic unit, and control unit, the processor contains a
number of registers used for temporary storage of data and
some special function registers.
• The special function registers include program counters (PC),
instruction registers (IR), memory address registers (MAR) and
memory and memory data registers (MDR).
• The Program counter is one of the most critical registers in
CPU.
• The Program counter monitors the execution of instructions. It
keeps track on which instruction is being executed and what
the next instruction will be.
• The instruction register IR is used to hold the instruction that
is currently being executed.
• The contents of IR are available to the control unit, which8
generate the timing signals that control, the various
• The two registers MAR and MDR are used to handle the data
transfer between the main memory and the processor.
• The MAR holds the address of the main memory to or from
which data is to be transferred.
• The MDR contains the data to be written into or read from the
addressed word of the main memory.
• Whenever the processor is asked to communicate with
devices, we say that the processor is servicing the devices.
The processor can service these devices in one of the two
ways.
• One way is to use the polling routine, and the other way is to
use an interrupt.
• Polling enables the processor software to check each of the
input and output devices frequently. During this check, the
processor tests to see if any devices need servicing or not.
• Interrupt method provides an external asynchronous input that
informs the processor that it should complete whatever9
instruction that is currently being executed and fetch a new
 General System
• In Architecture
Computer Architecture, the
General System Architecture is
divided into two major classification
units.
1. Store Program Control Concept
– refers to the storage of instructions
in computer memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in
sequence or intermittently.
– The idea was introduced in the late
1040s by John von Neumann
2. Flynn's Classification of Computers
– M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the
organization of a computer system by the
number of instructions and data items that are
manipulated simultaneously.
– The sequence of instructions read
from memory constitutes 10
an instruction stream.
 Von Neumann Model
• Von-Neumann proposed his
computer architecture design in
1945 which was later known as Von-
Neumann Architecture. It consisted
of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and
Logical Memory Unit (ALU), Registers
and Inputs/Outputs.
• Von Neumann architecture is based
on the stored-program computer
concept, where instruction data and
program data are stored in the same Components of Von-Neumann
memory. This design is still used in Model:
most computers produced today. • Central Processing Unit
• A Von Neumann-based computer: • Buses
• Uses a single processor • Memory Unit
• Uses one memory for both
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instructions and data.
 General Purpose System

• The General Purpose Computer System is the modified version of the Von-
Neumann Architecture. In simple words, we can say that a general
purpose computer system is a modern day architectural representation of
Computer System.
• The CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of the ALU (Arithmetic and
Logic Unit), Control Unit and various processor registers.
• The CPU, Memory Unit and I/O subsystems are interconnected by the
system bus which includes data, address, and control-status lines.

• practical systems may differ from the single bus architecture in the sense
that it may be configured around multiple buses.
• Multiple Bus Architecture favors high throughput as compared to Single
12
Bus Architecture.
 Parallel Processing

• Parallel processing can be described as a class

of techniques which enables the system to
achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to
increase the computational speed of a
computer system.
• A parallel processing system can carry out
simultaneous data-processing to achieve
faster execution time. For instance, while an
instruction is being processed in the ALU
component of the CPU, the next instruction
can be read from memory.
• The primary purpose of parallel processing is
to enhance the computer processing capability
and increase its throughput, i.e. the amount of
processing that can be accomplished during a
given interval of time.
• A parallel processing system can be achieved
by having a multiplicity of functional units that 13
perform identical or different operations
• The diagram shows one possible way of separating the execution
unit into eight functional units operating in parallel.
• The operation performed in each functional unit is indicated in each
block if the diagram:
• The adder and integer multiplier performs the arithmetic operation
with integer numbers.
• The floating-point operations are separated into three circuits
operating in parallel.
• The logic, shift, and increment operations can be performed
concurrently on different data. All units are independent of each
other, so one number can be shifted while another number is being
incremented.

14
 Pipelining
• The term Pipelining refers to a technique of decomposing a sequential
process into sub-operations, with each sub-operation being executed in
a dedicated segment that operates concurrently with all other
segments.
• The most important characteristic of a pipeline technique is that
several computations can be in progress in distinct segments at the
same time.
• The overlapping of computation is made possible by associating a
register with each segment in the pipeline. The registers provide
isolation between each segment so that each can operate on distinct
data simultaneously.
• The structure of a pipeline organization can be represented simply by
including an input register for each segment followed by a
combinational circuit.

15
 Flynn's classification

divides computers into four major groups

that are:

1. Single instruction stream, single data strea

m (SISD)
– It represents the organization of a single
computer containing a control unit, a
processor unit, and a memory unit.
– Most conventional computers have SISD
architecture like the traditional Von-Neumann
computers.
– Parallel processing, in this case, may be
achieved by means of multiple functional
units or by pipeline processing.

16
Single instruction stream, multiple data st
ream (SIMD)

– It represents an organization that includes many processing units

under the supervision of a common control unit.
– SIMD is mainly dedicated to array processing machines. However,
vector processors can also be seen as a part of this group.

17
Multiple instruction stream, single data str
eam (MISD)

– MISD structure is only of theoretical interest since no

practical system has been constructed using this
organization.
– In MISD, multiple processing units operate on one single-
data stream. Each processing unit operates on the data
independently via separate instruction stream.
– Example:
The experimental Carnegie-Mellon C.mmp computer
(1971)

18
Multiple instruction stream, multiple data
stream (MIMD)

– In this organization, all processors in a parallel computer can

execute different instructions and operate on various data at the
same time.
– In MIMD, each processor has a separate program and an
instruction stream is generated from each program.
– Examples:
Cray T90, Cray T3E, IBM-SP2

19
 COMPUTER TYPES

Computers are classified based on the

parameters like
– Speed of operation
– Cost
– Computational power
– Type of application
DESKTOP COMPUTER

• Processing &storage units, visual display &audio units,

keyboards
• Storage media-Hard disks, CD-ROMs
• Eg: Personal computers which is used in homes and offices
• Advantage: Cost effective, easy to operate, suitable for general
purpose, educational or business application
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER

• Compact form of personal computer (laptop)

• Advantage is portability
WORK STATIONS
• More computational power than PC
• Costlier
• Used to solve complex problems which arises in engineering
application (graphics, CAD/CAM etc)

ENTERPRISE SYSTEM (MAINFRAME)

• More computational power

• Larger storage capacity
• Used for business data processing in large organization
• Commonly referred as servers or super computers
SERVER SYSTEM
• Supports large volumes of data which frequently need to be
accessed or to be modified
• Supports request response operation

SUPER COMPUTERS

• Faster than mainframes

• Helps in calculating large scale numerical and algorithm
calculation in short span of time
• Used for aircraft design and testing, military application and
weather forecasting
HANDHELD
• Also called a PDA (Personal
Digital Assistant).
• A computer that fits into a
pocket, runs on batteries, and is
used while holding the unit in
your hand.
• Typically used as an
appointment book, address book,
calculator, and notepad.
• Can be synchronized with a
personal microcomputer as a
backup.
 Basic Terminology
• Computer • Software
– A device that accepts input, – A computer program that tells the
processes data, stores data, and computer how to perform
produces output, all according to particular tasks.
a series of stored instructions.

• Hardware • Peripheral devices

– Includes the electronic and – Used to expand the computer’s
mechanical devices that process input, output and storage
the data; refers to the computer capabilities.
as well as peripheral devices.
 Basic Terminology
• Input
– Whatever is put into a computer system.
• Data
– Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
• Information
– The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words,
numbers, sounds, and graphics.
• Output
– Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
• Processing
– Manipulation of the data in many ways.
• Memory
– Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed,
stored, or output.
• Storage
– Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it is not
immediately needed for processing.
 Basic Terminology

• Assembly language program (ALP) – Programs are written

using mnemonics

• Mnemonic – Instruction will be in the form of English like form

• Assembler – is a software which converts ALP to MLL

(Machine Level Language)

• HLL (High Level Language) – Programs are written using

English like statements

• Compiler - Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading

source program at once
 Basic Terminology

• Interpreter – Converts HLL to MLL, does this job

statement by statement

• System software – Program routines which aid the user

in the execution of programs eg: Assemblers,
Compilers

• Operating system – Collection of routines responsible

for controlling and coordinating all the activities in a
computer system
 1.2 Computer Components

• At the most basic level, a computer is a

device consisting of three pieces:
– A processor to interpret and execute programs
– A memory to store both data and programs
– A mechanism for transferring data to and from the
outside world.

29
 1.3 An Example System

Consider this advertisement: z? ?

MH

e? ?
a ch
C MB?
L1 ?

CI ? ?
P
US
B? ?
What does it all mean??
30
 1.3 An Example System

Common Prefixes to Measure capacity and

speed:
• Kilo- (K) = 1 thousand = 103 and 210
• Mega- (M) = 1 million = 106 and 220
• Giga- (G) = 1 billion = 109 and 230
• Tera- (T) = 1 trillion = 1012 and 240
• Peta- (P) = 1 quadrillion = 1015 and 250
Whether a metric refers to a power of ten or a power of
two typically depends upon what is being measured.

31
 1.3 An Example System

• Hertz = clock cycles per second (frequency)

– 1MHz = 1,000,000Hz
– Processor speeds are measured in MHz or GHz.
• Byte = a unit of storage
– 1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes
– 1MB = 220 = 1,048,576 Bytes
– Main memory (RAM) is measured in MB
– Disk storage is measured in GB for small systems, TB
for large systems.

32
 1.3 An Example System

Common Prefixes' used to Measure time and

space:
• Milli- (m) = 1 thousandth = 10 -3
• Micro- () = 1 millionth = 10 -6
• Nano- (n) = 1 billionth = 10 -9
• Pico- (p) = 1 trillionth = 10 -12
• Femto- (f) = 1 quadrillionth = 10 -15

33
 1.3 An Example System

• Millisecond = 1 thousandth of a second

– Hard disk drive access times are often 10 to 20
milliseconds.
• Nanosecond = 1 billionth of a second
– Main memory access times are often 50 to 70
nanoseconds.
• Micron (micrometer) = 1 millionth of a meter
– Circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.

34
 1.3 An Example System

• We note that cycle time is the reciprocal of clock

frequency.
• A bus operating at 133MHz has a cycle time of
7.52 nanoseconds:

133,000,000 cycles/second = 7.52ns/cycle

Now back to the advertisement ...

35
 1.3 An Example System

Throughout the remainder of this course you

will see how these components work and how
they interact with software to make complete
computer systems.

This statement raises two important questions:

What assurance do we have that computer
components will operate as we expect?
And what assurance do we have that
computer components will operate together?

36
1.4 Standards Organizations

• There are many organizations that set

computer hardware standards-- to include
the interoperability of computer components.
• Some are adhoc trade association or
consortia made up of industry leaders
• Some are registered ,have formal charter
and recognized internationally.
• Some of the most important standards-
setting groups are . . .

37
1.4 Standards Organizations

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic

Engineers (IEEE)
– Promotes the interests of the worldwide electric
and computer engineering community.
– Establishes standards for computer components,
data representation, and signaling protocols,
among many other things.

38
1.4 Standards Organizations

• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

– Concerns itself with the interoperability of
telecommunications systems, including data
communications and telephony.
– Telegraphy ,telecommunication,
• National groups establish standards within their
respective countries:
– The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
– The British Standards Institution (BSI)

39
1.4 Standards Organizations

• The International Organization for

Standardization (ISO)
– Establishes worldwide standards for everything
from screw threads to photographic film.
– Is influential in formulating standards for
computer hardware and software, including their
methods of manufacture.
Note: ISO is not an acronym. ISO comes from the Greek,
isos, meaning “equal.”

40
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Computers consist of many things besides

chips.
• Before a computer can do anything worthwhile,
it must also use software.
• Writing complex programs requires a “divide
and conquer” approach, where each program
module solves a smaller problem.
• Complex computer systems employ a similar
technique through a series of virtual machine
layers.

41
 1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• The computer system hierarchy is the

combination of different levels that connects
the computer with the user and that makes
the use of the computer. It also describes how
the computational activities are performed on
the computer and it shows all the elements
used in different levels of system.
• Computer System Level Hierarchy consists of
seven levels:
42
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Each virtual machine

layer is an abstraction of
the level below it.
• The machines at each
level execute their own
particular instructions,
calling upon machines at
lower levels to perform
tasks as required.
• Computer circuits
ultimately carry out the
work.

43
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Level 6: The User Level

– This consists of users and executable programs.
– Program execution and user interface level.
– The level with which we are most familiar.
• Level 5: High-Level Language Level
– The level with which we interact when we write
programs in languages such as C, Pascal, Lisp, and
Java.

44
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Level 4: Assembly Language Level

– Acts upon assembly language produced from
Level 5, as well as instructions programmed
directly at this level.
– all the high-level languages are changed in the
assembly language. Assembly code is written for
it.
• Level 3: System Software Level
– Controls executing processes on the system.
– Protects system resources.
– Assembly language instructions often pass 45
through Level 3 without modification.
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Level 2: Machine Level

– Also known as the Instruction Set Architecture
(ISA) Level.
– Consists of instructions that are particular to the
architecture of the machine.
– Programs written in machine language need no
compilers, interpreters, or assemblers.

46
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Level 1: Control Level

– A control unit decodes and executes instructions
and moves data through the system.
– Control units can be microprogrammed or
hardwired.
– A microprogram is a program written in a low-
level language that is implemented by the
hardware.
– Hardwired control units consist of hardware that
directly executes machine instructions.

47
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy

• Level 0: Digital Logic Level

– This level is where we find digital circuits (the
chips).
– Digital circuits consist of gates and wires.
– These components implement the mathematical
logic of all other levels.

48
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• On the ENIAC,
all programming
was done at the
digital logic
level.
• Programming
the computer
involved moving
plugs and wires.

49
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• Inventors of the ENIAC, John Mauchley and

J. Presper Eckert, conceived of a computer
that could store instructions in memory.
• The invention of this idea has since been
ascribed to a mathematician, John von
Neumann, who was a contemporary of
Mauchley and Eckert.
• Stored-program computers have become
known as von Neumann Architecture systems.

50
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• Today’s stored-program computers have the

following characteristics:
– Three hardware systems:
• A central processing unit (CPU)
• A main memory system
• An I/O system
– The capacity to carry out sequential instruction
processing.
– A single data path between the CPU and main
memory.
• This single path is known as the von Neumann
bottleneck.

51
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• This is a general
depiction of a von
Neumann system:

• These computers
employ a fetch-
decode-execute
cycle to run
programs as
follows . . .

52
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• The control unit fetches the next instruction from

memory using the program counter to determine where
the instruction is located.

53
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• The instruction is decoded into a language that the ALU

can understand.

54
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• Any data operands required to execute the instruction

are fetched from memory and placed into registers within
the CPU.

55
1.7 The von Neumann Model

• The ALU executes the instruction and places results in

registers or memory.

56
1.8 Non-von Neumann Models

• Conventional stored-program computers have

undergone many incremental improvements
over the years.
• These improvements include adding
specialized buses, floating-point units, and
cache memories, to name only a few.
• But enormous improvements in computational
power require departure from the classic von
Neumann architecture.
• Adding processors is one approach.

57
1.8 Non-von Neumann Models

• In the late 1960s, high-performance computer

systems were equipped with dual processors
to increase computational throughput.
• In the 1970s supercomputer systems were
introduced with 32 processors.
• Supercomputers with 1,000 processors were
built in the 1980s.
• In 1999, IBM announced its Blue Gene
system containing over 1 million processors.

58
1.8 Non-von Neumann Models

• Parallel processing is only one method of

providing increased computational power.
• More radical systems have reinvented the
fundamental concepts of computation.
• These advanced systems include genetic
computers, quantum computers, and dataflow
systems.
• At this point, it is unclear whether any of these
systems will provide the basis for the next
generation of computers.

59
 Computing Systems

Computers have two kinds of components:

• Hardware, consisting of its physical devices
(CPU, memory, bus, storage devices, ...)
• Software, consisting of the programs it has
(Operating system, applications, utilities, ...)

Calvin College
 FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF
COMPUTER
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Central processing Unit (ALU and Control
Units)
• Memory
• Bus Structure
 The Big Picture

Processor
Input
Control
Memory

ALU
Output

Since 1946 all computers have had 5 components!!!

 IMPORTANT
Function SLIDE !

• ALL computer functions are:

– Data PROCESSING Data = Information
– Data STORAGE
– Data MOVEMENT Coordinates How
– CONTROL Information is Used

• NOTHING ELSE!
INPUT UNIT:

• Converts the external world data to a binary format, which can

be understood by CPU

• Eg: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick etc

OUTPUT UNIT:

• Converts the binary format data to a format that a common man

can understand

• Eg: Monitor, Printer, LCD, LED etc

CPU

• The “brain” of the machine

• Responsible for carrying out computational task

• Contains ALU, CU, Registers

• ALU Performs Arithmetic and logical operations

• CU Provides control signals in accordance with some

timings which in turn controls the execution process

• Register Stores data and result and speeds up the operation

Example
Add R1, R2

T1 Enable R1
T2 Enable R2
T3 Enable ALU for addition operation

T4 Enable out put of ALU to store result of

the operation
 • Control unit works
with a reference
T1 signal called
T2 processor clock

• Processor divides
the operations into
basic steps
R1 R2
• Each basic step is
executed in one
clock cycle

R2
MEMORY

• Stores data, results, programs

• Two class of storage

(i) Primary (ii) Secondary

• Two types are RAM or R/W memory and ROM read only
memory

• ROM is used to store data and program which is not going

to change.

• Secondary storage is used for bulk storage or mass storage

 Basic Operational Concepts

Basic Function of Computer

• To Execute a given task as per the appropriate
program

• Program consists of list of instructions stored in

memory
Interconnection between Processor and
Memory
 Registers

• Registers are fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data

temporarily. Multiple registers are needed to facilitate the
operation of the CPU. Some of these registers are special and
some special.

• Two registers-MAR (Memory Address Register) and MDR

(Memory Data Register) : To handle the data transfer between
main memory and processor. MAR-Holds addresses, MDR-
Holds data
• Instruction register (IR) : Hold the Instructions that is currently
being executed.
• Program counter: Points to the next instructions that is to be
fetched from memory
• (PC) (MAR)( the contents of PC
transferred to MAR)

• (MAR) (Address bus) Select a particular

memory location

• Issues RD control signals

• Reads instruction present in memory and loaded

into MDR

• Will be placed in IR (Contents transferred from

MDR to IR)
• Instruction present in IR will be decoded by
which processor understand what operation it has
to perform

• Increments the contents of PC by 1, so that it

points to the next instruction address

• If data required for operation is available in

register, it performs the operation

• If data is present in memory following sequence

is performed
• Address of the data MAR

• MAR Address bus select memory

location where is issued RD signal

• Reads data via data bus MDR

• From MDR data can be directly routed to ALU or it can be

placed in register and then operation can be performed

• Results of the operation can be directed towards output

device, memory or register

• Normal execution preempted (interrupt)

 Interrupt
• An interrupt is a request from I/O device for service by
processor
• Processor provides requested service by executing
interrupt service routine (ISR)
• Contents of PC, general registers, and some control
information are stored in memory .
• When ISR completed, processor restored, so that
interrupted program may continue
 Conclusion

• This chapter has given you an overview of the

subject of computer architecture.
• You should now be sufficiently familiar with
general system structure to guide your studies
throughout the remainder of this course.
• Subsequent chapters will explore many of
these topics in great detail.

76
End of Chapter 1

77