What is Thought?

Cognition : The mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking.
Cognitive psychology was originally based on two ideas about thinking:
(1) Knowledge about the world is stored in the brain in representations, and (2) thinking is the mental
manipulation of these representations.
we use representations to understand objects we encounter in our environments. Thinking allows us to take
information, consider it, and use it to build models of the world, set goals, and plan our actions accordingly.
• In thinking we use two basic types of mental representations : analogical and symbolic. Together, both
types of representations form the basis of human thought, intelligence, and the ability to solve the
complex problems of everyday life.
• An analogy compares two things that are similar in some way: “This is to that as that is to….”. Analogical
representations have some characteristics of actual objects. These representations are usually images. For
example,
o maps are analogous representations that correspond to geographical layouts.
o clock corresponds to the passage of time
o family trees depict relationships between relatives
By contrast, symbolic representations are abstract. These
representations are usually words, numbers, or ideas. They
do not have relationships to physical qualities of objects in
the world. Mental maps rely on both analogical and symbolic
representations.
 What is Problem Solving?

From organizing your movie collection to deciding to buy a house, problem solving makes up a large part of
daily life. Problems can range from small (solving a single math equation on your home work assignment)
to very large (planning your future career).

The term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and
solve problems. The steps in the problem process include:

 The discovery of the problem

 The decision to tackle the issue
 Understanding the problem
 Researching the available options
 Taking actions to achieve your goals

Before problem solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself.
If the understanding of the issue is faulty, our attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.
 Problem Solving Mental Process

There are a number of mental processes at work during problem solving. These include:

 Perceptually recognizing a problem

 Representing the problem in memory
 Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem
 Identify different aspects of the problem
 Labeling and describing the problem

Problem- Solving Strategies

There are a number of different ways that people go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies
might be used on their own, but people may also employ a range of approaches to figuring out and fixing a
problem.
Algorithms

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce the correct solution. A mathematical
problem is a good example of a problem solving algorithm.
While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem-solving.
The strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so time-consuming. For example, if we
are trying to figure out all of the possible number combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take
a very long time.

Heuristics

A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Unlike
algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution. However, using this problem-solving
strategy does allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible
solutions to a more manageable set.
Trial and Error

A trial- and –error approach to problem- solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling
out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of
options available.
If there are many different choices, you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another
problem-solving technique before attempting trial-and error.

Insight

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. This can occur because you realize
that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past. However, the
underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.
 Obstacles in Problem-Solving
Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles that can
interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have described a number of
these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant information, and assumptions.

• Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and
obstacles that prevent certain solutions.
• Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner.
Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available
to find a solution.
• Irrelevant or misleading information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to
distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty
solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant
information.
• Mental set: A mental set is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past
rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it useful
problem- solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find
effective solutions.
https://cod.pressbooks.pub/introductiontopsychology/
chapter/thinking-and-reasoning/
 Reasoning

• Reasoning is the ability to assess things rationally by applying logic based on new or existing
information when making a decision or solving a problem.
• It allows you to weigh the benefits and disadvantages of two or more courses of action before
choosing the one with the most benefit or the one that suits your needs.
• It also helps you solve problems, handle uncertainty, verify claims and assess situations carefully to
ensure the decision you make is in your best interest.
• Reasoning comes in diverse forms, from everyday decision-making processes to powerful
algorithms that power artificial intelligence. You can find formal reasoning in established disciplines
such as mathematics, logic, artificial intelligence and philosophy.
• Understanding the types of reasoning can help you evaluate and advance your decision-making
process.
 Different types of Reasoning

1. Deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that uses formal logic and observations to prove a theory of
hypothesis. In deductive reasoning, you start with an assumption and then make observations or
rational thoughts to validate or refute the assumption. You can use deductive reasoning to apply a
general law to a specific case or test an induction. The results of deductive reasoning typically have a
logical certainty.

For example, a marketing division evaluated data and reaffirms that their company’s biggest
demographic is young parents. Based on this information, they decide to allocate more of the marketing
budget to social media platforms that target that group.
2. Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning uses theories and assumptions to validate observations. In some ways it’s the opposite
of deductive reasoning, as it involves reasoning from a specific case or cases to derive a general rule. The
results of inductive reasoning, as it involves reasoning from a specific case or cases to derive a general rule.
The results of inductive reasoning are not always certain because it uses conclusions from observations to
make generalizations. Inductive reasoning is helpful for extrapolation, predictions and part-to-whole
arguments.
For instance, a kindergarten teacher has struggles to hold the attention of her class throughout the morning.
She tries adding an extra five-minute activity break one hour after school starts. After a week of mood
improvements and attention gains, she decodes to permanently add the extra activity break.
3. Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves extensive rational thought about a specific subject in order to come to a definitive
conclusion. It’s helpful in fields such as computing, engineering, social sciences and logic. Critical thinking
plays a vital role in problem-solving, especially when trouble shooting technical issues. It’s used to assess the
authenticity of work of arts, literature, films and other artistic expressions. Critical thinking also plays a vital
role in mental and emotional matters, gray areas and other fields that deal with subjects less understood.

For example, the general manager of a family restaurant hears that a bakery important to their supply chain
is about to go in strike. They order extra baked goods to freeze and then plans a distributor they can use
during the strike.
 How do we Understand Intelligence?
Some times thought process lead to great ideas and creative discoveries, but other times they lead to bad
decisions and regret. Inevitably, some people seem to be better at using knowledge than others. When people
are good at using knowledge, we say they are intelligent. Thus, intelligence is the ability to use knowledge , we
say they are intelligent.
Thus, intelligence is the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve
problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.

Because environments differ, environmental challenges can differ. Someone considered intelligent in an
industrialized nation may struggle to survive in the jungle, where being able to judge weather, identify local
hazards, and find and prepare food are better indicators of intelligence.

• Do these differences mean that intelligence reflects environment?

• What exactly is intelligence?

Psychologists have long struggled to define intelligence, and disagreement continues about what it means to
be intelligent.
Psychological research generally focuses on two questions: How do knowledge and its applications in
everyday life translate into intelligence?
• How much is intelligence determined by genes and by environment?
 Intelligence is measured with Standardized Tests
The psychometric approach to measuring intelligence focuses in how people perform on standardized tests
that assess mental abilities. These tests examine what people know and how they solve problems.
One type of standardized test focuses on achievement. The other type focuses on aptitude.
Achievement test assess people’s current levels of skill and knowledge.
Aptitude tests seek to predict what tasks, and perhaps even what jobs, people will be good at in the future. for
both kind of tests, the stakes can be high. Peoples performances can hugely affect their lives.

Alfred Binet developed a method of assessing intelligence. Binet’s goal was to identify children in the French
school system who needed extra attention and special instruction.
 He proposed that intelligence is best understood as a collection of high-level mental processes.
 With the help of his assistant Theodore Simon, he developed a test for measuring each child’s vocabulary,
memory, skill with numbers, and other mental abilities. The result was the Binet –Simon Intelligence scale.
 One assumption underlying the test was that each child might do better on some components by chance,
but how the child performed on average across the different components would indicate his or her overall
level of intelligence.
 Intelligence is Related to Cognitive Performance
• Francis Galton led one of the earliest efforts to scientifically study intelligence. Galton believed that
intelligence was related to the speed of neural responses and the sensitivity of the sensory/perceptual
systems.
• The smartest people, Galton believed, had the quickest responses and the keenest perceptions. Galton
also speculated that intelligent people have larger, more efficient brains.
• According to Galton, intelligence was related to the efficiency of the brain as well as to keen perceptual
skills.
SPEED OF MENTAL PROCESSING
People who are not very intelligent are sometimes described as a “bit slow”. That description might be
accurate, because people who score higher on intelligence tests respond more quickly and consistently on
reaction time tests than those who score lower on intelligence tests