Module 5

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 Digital Electronics Fundamentals

• Difference between analog and digital signals

• Number System-Binary, Hexadecimal.
• Conversion- Decimal to binary, Hexadecimal to decimal and vice-versa.
• Boolean algebra, Basic and Universal Gates, Full adder.
• Multiplexer, Decoder, SR and JK flip-flops, Shift register, Counters.
• Principle of operations of Mobile phone.

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INTRODUCTION

Analog systems process time-varying signals that can take on any value across a
continuous range of voltages (in electrical/electronics systems).

Digital systems process time-varying signals that can take on only one of two
discrete values of voltages (in electrical/electronics systems).
Discrete values are called 1 and 0 (ON and OFF, HIGH and LOW, TRUE and
FALSE, etc.)

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INTRODUCTION

Digital systems are concerned with digital signals

Digital signals can take many forms
binary signals are the most common form of digital signals
-can be used individually
• perhaps to represent a single binary quantity or the state of a single switch
-can be used in combination
• to represent more complex quantities

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Switching and Logic Levels

• A binary quantity is one that can take only 2 states

S L
OPEN OFF
CLOSED ON

S L
0 0
1 1
A simple binary arrangement
A truth table

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Common Number systems

System Base Symbols

Decimal 10 0, 1, … 9
Binary 2 0, 1
Octal 8 0, 1, … 7
Hexa- 16 0, 1, … 9,
decimal A, B, … F

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Common Number systems

Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7

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Common Number systems

Hexa-
Decimal Binary Octal decimal
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

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Conversion Among Bases

• The possibilities:

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Example

2510 = 110012 = 318 = 1916

Base

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 Decimal to Binary
• Technique
– Divide by two, keep track of the remainder
– First remainder is bit 0 (LSB, least-significant bit)
– Second remainder is bit 1 etc

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 Example
12510 = ?2 2 125
2 62 1

2 31 0
15 1
2
7 1
2
2 3 1

2 1 1
0 1

12510 = 11111012

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Binary to Decimal
Decimal Octal

Hexadecimal Binary

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 Binary to Decimal

By adding together ALL the decimal number values from right to left at the
positions that are represented by a “1” gives
us: (256) + (64) + (32) + (4) + (1) = 35710 or three hundred and fifty seven
as a decimal number.
Then, we can convert binary to decimal by finding the decimal equivalent
of the binary array of digits 1011001012 and expanding the binary digits
into a series with a base of 2giving an equivalent of 357 10 in decimal

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Hexadecimal to Decimal
Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Hexadecimal to Decimal
• Technique
– Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the “weight” of the bit
– The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right
– Add the results

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 Example

ABC16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12

B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
274810

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Decimal to Hexadecimal

Decimal Octal

Binary Hexadecimal

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 Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Technique
– Divide by 16
– Keep track of the remainder

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 Example
123410 = ?16

16 1234
16 77 2

16 4 13 = D
0 4

123410 = 4D216

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3.2 BooleBoolean Algebraan Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,”
1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and
NOT.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar. It is sometimes
indicated by a prime mark
( ‘ ) or an “elbow” ().

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering

system is so handy in digital systems.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• As with common
arithmetic, Boolean
operations have rules of
precedence.
• The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.
• This is how we chose the
(shaded) function
subparts in our table.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Digital computers contain circuits that implement

Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit that will result.
– Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less
power, and run faster than complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.
• There are a number of Boolean identities that help
us to do this.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form

as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities
using both forms. Our first group is rather intuitive:

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Our second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar to you from your study of algebra:

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the

most useful.
• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• We can use Boolean identities to simplify the

function:
as follows:

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a

circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement
the function directly.
• DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding
the complement of a Boolean function.
• Recall DeMorgan’s law states:

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean

expressions, we see that there are numerous
ways of stating the same Boolean expression .
– These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent.
– Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth
tables.
• In order to eliminate as much confusion as
possible, designers express Boolean functions in
standardized or canonical form.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• There are two canonical forms for Boolean

expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums.
– Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the
Boolean sum is the OR operation.
• In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are
ORed together.
– For example:
• In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together:
– For example:

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• It is easy to convert a function

to sum-of-products form using
its truth table.
• We are interested in the values
of the variables that make the
function true (=1).
• Using the truth table, we list
the values of the variables that
result in a true function value.
• Each group of variables is then
ORed together.

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 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• The sum-of-products form

for our function is:

We note that this function is not

in simplest terms. Our aim is only
to rewrite our function in
canonical sum-of-products form.

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 Truth Tables

xy = x AND y = x * y x + y = x OR y x bar = NOT x

AND is true only if OR is true if either NOT inverts the bit
both inputs are true inputs are true We will denote x bar as ~X

NOR is NOT of OR NAND is NOT of AND XOR is true if both inputs

differ

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 AND
 In order for current to flow, both switches must
be closed
– Logic notation AB = C
(Sometimes AB = C)

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

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 OR
 Current flows if either switch is closed
– Logic notation A + B = C

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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 Properties of AND and OR
• Commutation
oA+B=B+A
oAB=BA

Same as

Same as

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 Exclusive OR (XOR)

Either A or B, but not both

This is sometimes called the inequality detector, A B S
because the result will be 0 when the inputs are the same
and 1 when they are different. 0 0 0
The truth table is the same as for S on Binary Addition. S
=AB
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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 NAND (NOT AND)

A B Q
Q A B 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 NOR (NOT OR)

A B Q
Q A  B 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

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 Exclusive NOR

A B Q
Q A  B 0 0 1
0 1 0
Equality Detector 1 0 0
1 1 1

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Full Adder Circuit

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 8:1 MULTIPLEXER

Multiplexer is a device that

Has multiple input lines and
single output line. The select lines
determine which input line is
connected to the output, also
increase the amount of
data that can be sent over a
networkwithin certain time.
Also known as data selector.

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 3:8 Decoder

• A decoder is a combinational
circuit which is used to change the
code into a set of signals.
• A decoder circuit takes multiple
inputs and gives multiple outputs.
• A decoder circuit takes binary data
of ‘n’ inputs into ‘2^n’ unique
output. In addition to input pins, the
decoder has a enable pin. This
enables the pin when negated,
makes the circuit inactive
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Clocked SR Flipflop

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JK Flip flop

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 Shift registers
Serial Input Serial output Shift Register
• 4 bit register
• It needs 4 clock pulses to store 4 bits
Example: Show the states of the 5-bit shift register for the specified
data input and clock waveforms. The registered is initially cleared.
 Shift Register
SISO ,SIPO, PISO, PIPO four types of Registers

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 Counters
• Binary Counters are widely used in all digital circuits
• Counter is a circuit that counts the number of occurrence's of binary input(in terms of
positive or negative edge transitions in the case of binary input.
• What is state of counter ?
• Primarily constituted of flip flops which along with combinational elements are used for
generation of control signals.
• Two major categories 1.Asynchronous(Ripple)counters 2. Synchronous counters.
• What do we mean by Asynchronous and Synchronous?

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 Asynchronous Counter
3-bit Asynchronous counter (UP COUNTER)

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 Introduction: Counters
 Counters are circuits that cycle through a specified
number of states.
 Two types of counters:
 synchronous (parallel) counters
 asynchronous (ripple) counters

 Ripple counters allow some flip-flop outputs to be

used as a source of clock for other flip-flops.
 Synchronous counters apply the same clock to all
flip-flops.

CS1104-13 Introduction: Counters 55

 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters
 Asynchronous counters: the flip-flops do not change
states at exactly the same time as they do not have a
common clock pulse.
 Also known as ripple counters, as the input clock pulse
“ripples” through the counter – cumulative delay is a
drawback.
 n flip-flops  a MOD (modulus) 2n counter. (Note: A
MOD-x counter cycles through x states.)
 Output of the last flip-flop (MSB) divides the input
clock frequency by the MOD number of the counter,
hence a counter is also a frequency divider.
CS1104-13 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters 56
 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters
 Example: 2-bit ripple binary counter.
 Output of one flip-flop is connected to the clock input
of the next more-significant flip-flop.
HIGH

T Q0 T Q1
CLK C C
Q0

FF0 FF1

CLK 1 2 3 4

Q0 Timing diagram
00  01  10  11  00 ...
Q0 0 1 0 1 0

Q1 0 0 1 1 0

CS1104-13 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters 57

 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters
 Example: 3-bit ripple binary counter.
HIGH

T Q0 T Q1 T Q2
CLK C Q0 C Q1 C

FF0 FF1 FF2

CLK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Q0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Q1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Q2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0

Recycles back to 0

CS1104-13 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters 58

 Synchronous Counter
All flip-flops change simultaneously after
the appropriate propagation delay
associated with a single flip-flop.
Count pulses are applied directly to the
control inputs, C, of all the clocked flip-
flops.
All flip-flops change simultaneously
after the appropriate propagation
delay associated with a single flip-
flop.

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Principle of Mobile communication
• Cellular /Mobile system provides standard telephone operation by full-duplex
Radio
• Provides a wireless connection to Public Switched Telephone Network.
• Basic concept is to divide the given geographical location into small areas known
as CELLS as shown in figure.
• Typical CELL covers several kms and contains a low power transmitter and its own
receiver.
• It is ideally HEXAGON.
• Cellular system consists of 1) mobile stations 2) base stations 3)Mobile Switching
center (MSC) also known as Mobile switching Telephone Office(MTSO)

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Block Diagram of Cellular Mobile Radio Unit

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 Useful Resources

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0mx8S05v60&list=PLBlnK6fEyqRjMH3mWf6kwqiTbT798eAOm

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