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College of Education and Behavioral
Sciences
Department of Psychology

Course name: General

Psychology (Psyc 1011)
Why you need to study
psychology?

 To get in touch with

essential terminologies,
theories, themes &
concepts of psychology.
 To identify situations
where psychology’s
principles & interventions
can be used.
Misconceptions about psychology &
psychologists

1. Anybody who has studied

psychology can read
people’s personality.
2. Psychologists can predict
fate or destiny.
3. Psychologists are doctors.
4. Psychologists give
medicines
Defining the Field of Psychology

1. Have you ever read any

material or heard
anything related to
psychology?
2. If so, what does
psychology mean to
you?
 I. Classic
definition
 The term 'psychology' was derived
from two Greek words:
 Psyche= Mind, Soul or Spirit
 Logos= Study or Discourse
 Hence, the literal meaning of
psychology was “the study of the
soul or spirit’.
 The nature of soul or spirit could
not be defined objectively.
 Therefore, the meaning of
psychology in terms of soul or
spirit was rejected.
 II. Contemporary
definition

 Psychology is “the scientific &

systematic study of human
behavior and underlying mental
processes”.
 Psychology can be represented
by the following Greek letter
(psi).
 Aspects of the definition

1. Science: what do you think is

science?
 Science is a body of
systematized knowledge.
 Systematic and controlled
extension of common sense
 Rely on information that is
verifiable through experience.
 That is, it must be possible for
different people in different places
and at different times using the
same method to obtain comparable
results.
2. Behavior
 Everything we do that can
be directly observed.
For example;
 Two people kissing
 baby crying
3. Mental processes
 Thoughts, feelings &
motives that each of us
experience privately, but
which can’t be observed
directly.
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: What is
happening?
 Involves observing a
behavior & noticing
everything about it.
 What is happening at a
moment?
 Where & under what
circumstance it happens?
2. Explanation: Why is it
happening?
 knowing what caused the
behavior.
3. Prediction:

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 Once we know what happens,
and why it happens, we can
speculate what will happen in
the future.
4. Control:
 By applying various
techniques of behavior
modification, psychologists try
to control behavior.
 Historical development of
psychology
 Psychology is a relatively new

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field in the realm of the
sciences.
 It emerged as a separate
discipline some 140 years
ago.
 Psychology broke away from
I. Philosophy &
II. Physiology
Itwas in 1879 that Wilhelm
Wundt opened the first
psychological laboratory in

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Leipzig, Germany.
 This event heralded the
beginning of psychology as a
scientific discipline.

Wilhelm Von Wundt (1832-

1920) considered by many as
the ―father of psychology.
 Schools of Psychology

 Influential psychologists of the

time held quite different views on
“subject matter” for psychology.
A. Should psychology be the
study of the mind?
B. Should it study behavior?
C. Should both mind & behavior
be included?

As a result, different schools

of thought formed, having
their own assumptions and
perspectives.
I. Early schools of psychology
Schools, in this context are groups
of scholars who held common

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beliefs about
 The subject matter of the
discipline
 The methods of study to be
used.
These schools of psychology include:
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Behaviorism
4. Gestalt
psychology
5. Psychoanalysis
 1. Structuralism
Founders;
A. Wilhelm Wundt
B. Edward
Titchener

Wilhelm Edward
Wundt Titchener
 Major tenets of
structuralism

 Psychology should concern itself

with the units & elements,
which make up the mind.
 Structuralists devised a
technique known as
“introspection”.
 Structuralism declined in the
early 1920s.
2. Functionalism

Founder; William
James
 Major tenets of
Functionalism

 Psychology should focus on how

the mind allows people to
function in the real world.
 Concerned with the purposes,
functions, of the mental
processes.
 How people work, play, and
adapt to their surroundings,
 3. Gestalt psychology

Founders;

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1. Max Wertheimer
2. Kurt Koffka
3. Wolfgang Kohler

Max Kurt Wolfgang

Wertheimer Koffka Kohler
Major tenets of Gestalt
Psychology

 Oppose the atomist approach of

the structuralists
 People perceive the world in
wholes.
 The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.
 D. Behaviorism
Founders;
1. John B. Watson

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2. Edward
Thorndike
3. B.F. Skinner

John B. Edward
Watson B.F. Skinner
Thorndike
 Major tenets of
Behaviorism

 Scientific psychology should

study only observable behavior”
 Psychology should altogether
abandon the study of mental
processes
 Psychology should focus on the
role of experience in shaping
behavior.
5. Psychoanalysis
Founder; Sigmund
Freud
 Major tenets of
Psychoanalysis
 Our unconscious urges and
thoughts (hidden wishes &
passions, guilty secrets) make
themselves known in
A. Dreams,
B. Slips of the tongue,
C. Jokes
 Our early childhood experience
determine our personality as an
adult.
 There is always a conflict among
the three personality structures
(Id, Ego & Super ego)
How do these schools of psychology
differ?
Basically they differ in terms of
three issues:
1. In their object of study: i.e. what
they studied (conscious mind,
unconscious mind & overt
behavior).
2. In their goal: analyze the
components of the mind or
observing the effect of the
environment on behavior.
3. In their method: Introspection,
observation, clinical case
studies.
 In
conclusion

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 The discourse made by the
structural, gestalt & functional
schools of psychology have
vanished
 Behaviorism & psychoanalysis
are still, in modified forms.
Modern schools of psychology

1.Psychodynamic
perspective
2.Behavioral perspective
3.The Humanistic
Perspective
4.The Physiological
Perspective
5.The Cognitive Perspective
6.The Socio-Cultural
Perspective
1. Psychodynamic perspective
Expanded by Post
Freudians;
A. Carl Jung
B. Adler
C. Anna Freud,
This perspective focuses largely
on
 The unconscious mind and its
influence over conscious behavior.
 The role of our early childhood
experience on our current behavior
 The role of interpersonal conflict in
determining human behavior.
 2. Behavioral perspective
 Focus on the influence of the
environment.
 Argue that learning and
experience make the kind of
person you become.

Applications of behavioral
perspective
A. Curbing aggression
B. Resolving sexual
problems
C. Ending drug addiction
D. Phobia
 3. Humanistic Perspective
Founders;
1. Carl Rogers
2. Abraham
Maslow
 People naturally striveMajor
to growtenets
&
develop, if they are given
opportunity.
 Human beings are unique and have
freedom to choose their own
destiny.
 Hence, the aim of psychology
should be to help them
maximize their potential for
4. The Physiological Perspective
 Argue that our behavior, even
what we think and feel, is
assumed to be linked to our
physiological make up.
 Hence, understanding of the
brain and the nervous system
is central in psychological
functioning
Labels attached to these researchers
are; A. Biopsychologis
t
B. Neuropsycholo
gist
C. Psychobiologist
 5. The Cognitive Perspective

Major tenets
 Our ways of thinking about the
world influence our behavior.
 People‘s thoughts & explanations
affect their actions, feelings &
choices.
 The events occurring within a
person must be studied if
behavior is to be fully
understood.
6.The Socio-Cultural Perspective

Major tenets
 Focuses on how the social and
cultural environment outside the
person influences our behavior.
 We are like fish that are unaware
that they live in water; so
obvious is water in their lives.
 These psychologists study the
water (social & cultural
environment) that people
―swim in everyday.
 In
summary

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Not all psychologists feel that
they must wear allegiance to
one approach, rather they are
eclectic.
 Activity 1

1. How many of the sub-

fields of psychology do
you know?
2. Where do you think
psychologists are
employed to work after
graduation?
 Sub-fields of Psychology
1. Bio-psychology/Neuropsychology:
 Study the biological foundations of
behavior.
2. Developmental Psychology:
 Study physical, mental & social
development of humans from
conception to death.
3. Personality Psychology:
 Study differences in behavior among
individuals.
A. Are our personalities determined
more by nature or by nurture?
B. To what extent do people behave
consistently?
4. Educational Psychology:
 Apply psychological principles &
theories to improve educational
process including;
Curriculum
Teaching
Administration of academic
programs.
5. School psychology:
 Set up programs to improve student
academic performance & school
behavior
 Provide counseling to students who
are having social or academic
problems.
 Usually, they work in elementary
6. Clinical Psychology:
 Deal with severe psychological
disorders, including;
A. Causes of severe abnormal
behavior.
B. Diagnosis & treatment of
disorders.
7. Counseling Psychology:
 Deal with less severe problems
than those treated by clinical
psychologists. This includes
A. Educational,
B. Social,
C. Marital
D. Career adjustment problems
8. Social Psychology:
 Study the way we affect and are
influenced by other people.
9. Cross-cultural Psychology
 Examines the role of culture in
understanding behavior, thought &
emotion.
 Compares the nature of psychological
processes in different cultures.
10. Industrial/Organizational
psychology
 Work to increase productivity in
industries & GOs & NGOs by;
A. Improving working conditions &
methods for hiring
B. Providing training on stress
management & burnout.
10. Forensic psychology:
 Work in the legal system.
 Study validity of eyewitness
testimony
 Devise ways to select jurors.
 Train police officers
11. Health psychology:
 Studies the relationship between
psychological variables well-
being of a person.
Research Methods in Psychology

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Research plays an
extremely important role
in psychology.
 Types of Research Methods

Inpsychology there are three

major types of research methods:

1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Experimenta
l
1. Descriptive Research Method

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In descriptive research
 The researcher simply
records what he or she has
systematically observed.
 It includes
A. Naturalistic
observation
B. Case study
C. Survey
 A. Naturalistic Observation
 This is observing behavior in their
natural environment.
 Often involves counting behaviors,
such as number of aggressive acts
or smiles.
 Psychologists conduct naturalistic
observations at;
A. Football games
B. Day-care centers
C. College dormitories
D. Shopping malls
E. Restaurants etc.
 Limitation: people who know they
are being watched may behave
artificially.
 B. Case Study

 This is an in-depth look at a

single individual/entity, typically
over an extended period of time.
 It is used mainly by clinical
psychologists

Limitations
 Generalization is impossible,
as usually only few cases are
involved
 Time consuming.
 More prone to researcher
bias.
 C. Survey
 Helps to gather large amounts of
data in a relatively short period
of time.
 Questionnaires & interviews are
most frequently used in survey
research.
Limitations
 Lacks depth or detailed
information.
 Respondents may distort their
responses.
 Misunderstanding of the
question,
 Lack of control over extraneous
variables.
 2. Correlational Studies
 Correlation is a research method
which measures the relationship
between two or more variables.
 However, based on results from
correlational research, we can’t
make any assumptions of cause
and effect.

Example; a researcher might be

curious to know whether or not
cigarette smoking is connected to
life expectancy.
 A correlation coefficient can
range from -1 to +1
A. (−1) indicates a very
( strong inverse
relationship
B. (+1) indicates a very
strong positive
relationship.
C. (0) indicates no
relationship between the
two variables.
 3. Experimental Research
Methods
Experimentation involves manipulation
of one or more IVs & then the
measurement of the effect of the
treatment on one or more DV.

Example; a researcher might be

curious to know the impact of
music on stress:
 Variables in
ER
I. Independent Variable (IV):
 The variable which is
manipulated by an
experimenter to see its effect
on DV.
 Music is an IV in the above
example
II. Dependent Variable (DV):
 The variable which changes as
a consequence of changes in
the IV.
 Stress is DV in the above
example
 Types of groups in experimental
research
1. Experimental group:
 A group comprising participants
who receive the experimental
treatment in an experiment.
2. Control group:
 A group in an experiment
comprising participants who
don’t receive the treatment.
 It serves as a baseline against
which the effects of the
manipulated condition can be
compared.
 Activity 2

Identify the IV & DV of the following

research topics

1. The effect of reading technique

on academic performance.
2. Did a violent TV program
increase aggression in young
children?
3. Are people in good mood more
willing to help others more than
those in bad mood?
Steps of Scientific Research

1. Defining the Problem

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 Noticing something attention
catching in the surrounding.
 Example-watching horror
movies & aggressive
behavior in children
2. Formulating the Hypothesis
 Example: children who watch
violent cartoons will become
more aggressive than those
who watch non-violent
cartoons‖.
3. Testing the Hypothesis
 Example: Collecting data from
children who watch aggressive

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videos & from those who don’t
watch aggressive videos & make
comparisons.
4. Drawing Conclusions
 An attempt to make
generalizations or draw
implications
5. Reporting Results
 This allows others to predict &
modify behavior based on the
findings.
 CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

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• The meanings of sensation and perception
- Sensation and perception are the first important
dimensions of human life.
- they are starting points for all of your other
psychological processes.
- They supply the data we use for learning and
remembering, thinking and problem solving,
communicating with others, and experiencing
emotions and for being aware of yourself.
• sensation

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- is the process whereby stimulation of
receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth,
and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses
to the brain.
- are closely tied to what is happening in the
sensory systems themselves.
- E.g. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a
bitter taste
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 Perception is the process that organizes
sensations into meaningful patterns.
 It is the process whereby the brain interprets
sensations, giving them order and meaning.
 Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is
largely a sensory process, but forming a
melody and detecting patterns and shapes is
largely a perceptual process.
 the difference between sensation
and perception

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 forexample, the black marks and
letters in this page.
 Visual
sensation lets you detect the
black marks.
 Visualperception lets you organize
the black marks into letters and
works.
 The sensory laws:
 Sensory thresholds

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 sensory adaption

Sensory thresholds: is the minimum point

of intensity a sound can be detected.
There are two laws of sensory threshold:
1. The law of absolute threshold and
2. the law of difference threshold.
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 The law of absolute threshold: The
minimum
amount of stimulation a person can
detect
 Limen,
 for example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of sugar before you could detect a
sweet taste.
 the minimum level of stimulation that can be
 The difference threshold
 Is

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changes in the intensity of a stimulus.
 Is the minimum amount of change that can be
detected.
 For example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of additional sugar before you
could detect an increase in its sweetness.
 the minimum change in stimulation that can be
detected
 This difference in threshold is called the just
noticeable difference (jnd).
Sensory Adaptation

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Is tendency of our sensory receptors
to have decreasing responsiveness to
unchanging stimulus
lets you detect potentially important
change in your environment while
ignoring unchanging aspects of it.
Perception
is a meaning making process

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the major characteristics of the
perceptual process:
1. selectivity of perception,
2. from perception,
3. depth perception,
4. perceptual constancy, and
5. perceptual illusion.
 Selectivity of perception: Attention
 theterm given to the perceptual process that selects

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certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience,
or awareness, at any given time, ignoring others.
 Whatdoes this selectivity of perception
imply?
 Theselectivity of perception implies that, among other
things, that our field of experience is divided into what is
known as ―Focus‖ and ―Margin.‖
 Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the focus
of your experience and other items or stimuli that you
perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin of your
attention.
internalpsychological states of

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the observer that affect as to
which stimulus on pays
attention to or ignore
Psychologists have identified two
important psychological factors:
1. Set or expectancy and
2. motives or needs.
 From perception
 meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that are

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made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete
or pieces and bites of sensations
 Toperceive forms (meaningful shapes or
patterns), you need to distinguish a figure (an
object) from its ground (or its surrounding).
 Figure-Ground Perception
 is
the perception of objects and
forms of everyday experience as
standing out from a background.
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 Factorsthat determine your attention
equally determine what should become
the figure and what should become the
ground.
 whathelps you in general to separate the figure
from the general around in your visual
perception?
 Thiswill take you to the second feature of form
perception called contours.
 Contours in Form Perception

 Contours are formed whenever a marked

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difference occurs in the brightness or color of the
background.
 contours give shape to the objects in our
visual world because they mark one object
off from another or they mark an object off
from the general ground.
 When contours are disrupted visually, as in
camouflage, objects are difficult to
distinguish from the background.
 Organization in form
Perception
 When several objects are present in the visual field,

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we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns
or groupings.
 The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization
intensively in the early part of this century.
 They emphasized that organized perceptual
experience has properties, which cannot be
predicated from a simple analysis of the
components.
 We see objects as objects only because grouping
processes operate in perception.
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What are some of the laws of
perceptual organization ?
2. Proximity:
 Items which are close together in
space or time tend to be perceived
as units.

Things that are relatively close to

one another tend to be grouped
together.
3. Similarity
 Objects of similar shape,
intensity, or color are grouped
together.

Here, items that look similar

will be seen as parts of the
same form.
4. Closure
 We tend to perceive a complete
object even though parts of it is
missing.

We tend to fill out

incomplete details to form
“good figures”
Example: read the following passage
OUTLOUD:
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at
Hramya Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer
in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod
are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht
the frist and lsat ltteer be at the
rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl
mses and you can sitll raed it
wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae
the huamn mnid deos not raed
ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod
as a wlohe.
So much for correct spelling,
right?
5. Continuation
 lines, patterns or objects tend to
be seen as continuing in one
direction even if interrupted by
another object.
II. Depth perception

How do we recover a 3-D

world from a 2-D retinal
image?
 II. Depth perception
Depth perception: the
ability to see three
dimensional space and to
accurately judge distances.
(is the ability to judge the
distance of the objects.
 The retinal image is only
two-dimensional; height and
width.
 From the two-dimensional
images, we somehow are
able to see three
dimensional objects.
Images of the Eyes and Retina
 Depth Cues:

Depth Cues: Features that

supply information about
distance and space.

We determine distance using

two different cues:
A.Monocular cues
B. Binocular cues
 A. Monocular cues
Monocular cues: those cues
which can be seen using only
one eye.
 Types of monocular cues
1. Relative Size: larger images are
perceived as closer to us, especially
if the two images are of the same
object.

he
f t
o her e
o p r t th
t fa t
e e a
h
t b it s
i n t o bb .
t s r a g e
i ea r a
b
b pp t h i m e
a
r a n e
e e ha t h
h
T a g t of
im ay m
aw t to
bo
 2. Interposition

Due to overlap, those objects

covering part of another object is
perceived as closer.
 3. Linear Perspective
Two parallel lines appear to converge
at the horizon, as the further away
they get.
 4. Texture Gradient

Objects seen at greater distances appear to be

smoother and less textured.
the nearer an object, the more details we can make out and the
farther an object, the more details we can make out, and the
farther an object, the fewer details we can make out.
 5. Elevation

The higher on the horizontal plane an

object is, the farther away it appears.
Objects that are higher in your visual field seem to be
farther away. If you paint a picture, you create depth
by placing more distant objects higher on the Canvas.
 Without the
monocular cues,
pictures seem
“flat.”
 B. Binocular cues
Binocular cues: those cues in
which both eyes are needed to
perceive depth.
 Types of binocular views
A. Retinal disparity: The differences
between the two retinal images of the
same scene as seen by the left eye
and right eye.
Examples of retinal disparity

The gap in the left image

differs
from the gap in the right
image.
 2. Convergence
As things get closer, your eyes
get more crossed or
converged.
 Perceptual constancies
Perceptual constancy: our tendency to
perceive objects as keeping their size,
shape & color even though the image
that strikes our retina changes from
moment to moment.
- The image of a given object focused on your
retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness.
- Yet you will continue to perceive the object as
stable in size, shape, and brightness because of
perceptual constancy.
There are typically three
constancies;
1. Size constancy
2. Shape constancy
3. Brightness constancy
A. Size constancy:
 Our ability to recognize that an
object remains constant in size
regardless of its distance to the
observer.

No matter how far away the

balloon is from you, you know
how large it is.
2. Shape constancy;
 Our ability to recognize a
shape regardless of the
angle from which you view
it.

Regardless of the angle, we

still perceive all the doors as
rectangles.
3. Brightness constancy:
 Our ability to recognize that
color remains the same
regardless of how it looks under
different levels of light.
Perceptual Illusion: Visual Illusion
Perceptual illusion: refers an
inappropriate interpretation of the
physical reality.

Common types of illusions include;

1.Visual Illusion: occurs when two
objects produce almost the same
retinal image but are perceived as
different images.
A. Ponzo illusion
B. Horizontal-vertical illusion
C. Muller-Lyer illusion
D.Moon illusion
 Chapter Three
Learning & Theories of
Learning
 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you are

expected to:
 Explain the general features of
learning.
 Use the behaviorist & cognitive
theories to explain how learning
occur
 Design techniques to reinforce
behavior & improve memory.
 The Nature of Learning

 Learning shapes our thought &

language, our motivations &
emotions, our personalities &
attitudes.
 Quite literally we learn all our
lives.
 Activity 1

1. What is learning to you?

2. What makes it different
from maturation &
development?
 The Meaning of learning

For a layperson;
 Learning is knowledge or skill
gained through schooling or
study that is usually perceived as
a positive change.

With reference to Psychology;

 Learning: refers to any
relatively permanent change in
behavior (positive & negative)
occurring as a result of
experience or practice.
Attributes/characteristics of learning

 Learning is marked by a change

 The change is relatively
permanent
 Doesn’t include change due to
a) Illness
b) Fatigue
c) Intoxication
d) Hormones &
neurotransmitters.
 Principles of learning

 Individuals learn best when they are

physically, mentally & emotionally
ready.
 Individuals learn best when they
have meaningful practice and
exercise.
 Learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant feeling.
 Individuals learn more from the real
thing than from a substitute.
 Things freely learned are best
learned
Factors Influencing Learning

A.Motivation
B. Maturation
C. Physical health condition
D.Psychological wellbeing
E. Learning environments
F. Length of the working
period
How Do We Learn?
 Theories of Learning

 There are three theories of learning

that explain how new behavior is
learned.

1. Behavioral Learning
Theory
2. Social Learning Theory
3. Cognitive Learning
Theory
 I. Behaviorism: Learning by
Association
Major arguments
 Learning occurs as a result of
stimulus-response
associations.
 Experience plays significant
role in governing behavior.

 There
are two theories under
1. Classical
Behaviorism
conditioning
2. Operant
conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning
 Founder: Ivan Pavlov (Russian
Physiologist)
 Born in Sep 26,1849
 Awarded a Degree in
natural sciences in
1875.
 Won the Nobel price
in Physiology in 1904
 Died in Feb 27, 1936
Brief overview of Pavlov’s Experiment

 Pavlov discovered classical

conditioning almost by accident.
 Originally, he had been studying
the role of salivation in digestion.
 He measured how much saliva
dogs produce when given meat.
 After a few days in the
experiment, Pavlov noticed that
the dogs in his laboratory started
salivating
• When the lab attendant
entered the room with the
meat dish.
 Video on Pavlov’s Experiment

..\..\..\..\Downloads\Video\Pavlovs
Dogs.mp4
Steps in Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning: is when a
neutral stimulus gradually gain the
ability to elicit a response because
of its former pairing with a
natural/unconditioned stimulus.

A. Stimulus: a physical energy

source that has an effect on a
sense organ, thus producing a
response.
B. Response: an action, behavior,
or reaction triggered by a
stimulus.
 The key element in classical
conditioning is association.
 It means that if two stimuli
repeatedly experienced
together, they will become
associated.
 Basics/Key terms in classical
conditioning
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 This is a stimulus that naturally
brings a response without having
been learned

Example; smell of food
causes salivation
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 This is a response that is natural
and needs no training
 Example; salivation at the
smell of food
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS-Bell)
A stimulus that brings a
response while paired with the
unconditioned stimulus (meat).
 Example; while the bell rings, the
dog salivates because, the dog
associated the bell with food due to
conditioning.
4. Conditioned Response (CR)
 It is the learned response that
is evoked by the conditioned
stimulus.
 Example; The dog’s salivation in
response to sound of the bell (in
the absence of meat)
Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Stimulus generalization: when

stimuli similar to a conditioned
stimulus produce similar response.
2. Stimulus discrimination: learning
to respond to certain stimuli & not
to respond to others.
3. Extinction: unlearning a learned
response because of the removal
of the original source of learning
(US)
4. Spontaneous Recovery: returning
to the original circumstances.
2. Operant/Instrumental
Conditioning
1. Why do horses gallop faster when
the rider whips them?
2. Why do we find surprise gifts in
the packs of detergents?
3. Why do employees who earn
profit to the organization get a
bonus at the end of year?

The answers to all these questions

can be found in the operant
conditioning approach
 Proponents/founders
1. Edward
Thorndike
2. B.F. Skinner

Edward B.F. Skinner

Thorndike (1874- (1904–
1949) 1990)
 Thorndike (1874- 1949) was the
pioneer in studying this kind of
learning.
 Skinner (1904–1990) further
expanded Thorndike‘s ideas.
 Thorndike formulated the Law of
Effect.
Law of Effect
 Behavior that brings about a satisfying
effect (reinforcement) is apt to be
performed again.
 Whereas behavior that brings about
negative effect (punishment) is apt to
be suppressed.
According to operant
conditioning:
 Organisms learn by
associating a behavior &
its consequence.

There are two concepts

in operant conditioning;
1. Reinforcement
2. Punishment
Reinforcement: is anything that
causes a response to be more likely
to happen again.
Punishment: stimulus that weakens
the response or makes it less likely
to occur.
Types of reinforcement and
punishment
Which type of reinforcement & punishment
is applied?

1. Second-grade students in Dallas, USA were

paid $2 each time they read a book &
passed a short quiz about the book-PR
2. If someone nags you all the time to study,
but stops nagging when you comply, your
studying is likely to increase - because you
will then avoid the nagging-NR
3. Car manufacturers plug a device in their
seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep”
until you fasten your seatbelt. The
annoying sound stops when you exhibit the
desired behavior-NR
 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement: denotes

a rule for when reinforcers will be
given following the performance of a
desired behavior.
Types reinforcement schedules
 Identify Types reinforcement
schedules

1. Factory worker getting paid for

every x number of items
manufactured-FR
2. Gambling-VR
3. A teacher receives his salary every
month-FI
4. A grade is assigned at the end of
every semester-FI
When does punishment work?
1. Schedule of punishment:
punishment is more effective
when it is delivered
consistently.
2. Intensity of punishment:
intensive physical punishment
in childhood is a risk factor for
depression, low self-esteem,
violent behavior.
3. Immediacy: punishment should
be immediate
4. Variation of the punishment:
varying the type & extent of
the punishment enhances
3. Observational/Social Learning
Theory
The prime proponent of
this theory is Albert
Bandura.
Social learning theory
believes that people learn
by observing or imitating
other people.
Processes of Observational Learning
4. Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Did we learn as a result of mere
association of stimulus and
response; or was it learnt just
because we were reinforced for
it?
2. Why does a soldier keep resisting
the strong enemy without caring
for his life even when he can
escape?
According to cognitive learning
theory
 Learning is more than just
stimulus-response association
or reward and punishment.
 All human intellectual
activities and potentials, i.e.
thinking, problem solving,
and learning require mental
processes.
 Internal processes are
essential in understanding
Behavior
 Chapter Four
Memory and Forgetting
 Memory: Overview
“If you lose the ability to recall
your old memories then you
have no life. You might as well
be a cabbage”
James McGaugh (2003)

 Without memory, we would be a

stranger for every thing.
 It is our memory that enables us to
enjoy an experience and then
mentally replay and enjoy it again.
Brain storming Questions

1. What do you think is a

memory?
2. What are the biological
bases of memory?
Biological basis of memory:
Hippocampus
 Meaning and Processes of
Memory

Memory
 Refers to our ability to
retain information about
past experiences
 A process by which we
encode, store and retrieve
information.
 Processes of Memory
Memory is a process analogous to a
computer, which encodes, stores &
retrieves information.
1.Encoding: getting
information in
2.Storage: retaining
information for future use
3.Retrieval: recovering
information from memory
storage
Structures/ Forms/Stages of Memory

Stages of memory: indicates how

information is represented in memory,
how long it lasts and how it is organized.

 Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971)

proposed ‘tripartite models of memory;
1. Sensory Memory/Register (SM)
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
3. Long- Term Memory (LTM)
 How do these memory structures
differ?
Each of the three structure differs
in the following ways.

 The content of information,

 The capacity & duration of
information,
 The way information is stored,
 The causes of information loss
1. Sensory Memory/Registrar: SM

 Refers the initial, momentary

recording of information in our
sensory systems.
 Lasts only very briefly and then
lost, unless it is attended &
processed,
 Information in this memory is a
very accurate & complete
representation of the
environment but it is
unprocessed.
 Capacity of sensory memory
 Very large: stores all
information reaching our senses
for a brief time.
 Duration if the information is;
a) Visual information: Iconic
memory
 A maximum of 1 second
and 11-16 items of info.
b) Auditory information: Echoic
memory
 A maximum of 2 seconds.
 2. Short Term Memory: STM
 This is the place where information
is temporarily kept for less than 1
minute.
 STM is also known as working
memory, immediate memory, active
memory & primary memory.
 The capacity of STM is limited to a
very small “bits” of information only
7+2.
More recent research suggests that
the average person, free from
distraction, can hold about: 7 digits, 6
letters, or 5 words.
 The information in STM
is fragile and easy to
lose.
Ways of retention of information in
STM;
1. Rehearsal
A. Maintenance rehearsal: repeating
information mentally or out loud (e.g., a
person‘s name, e-mail address, or
phone number)
B. Elaborative Rehearsal: involves
associating the information to different
things and persons
2. Chunking:
 The process of organizing
information into smaller
 Examples of Chunking

How many of the letters do you

remember?
U-D-F-O-E-S-R-B-M-T-A-C-I-N-V

USA-DRC-FBI-OMN-ETV
 3. Long Term Memory

 Used for relatively

permanent storage of
meaningful information.
 LTM stores information for
indefinite periods.
 The capacity of LTM also has
no practical limits.
 Sub-systems of
LTM:

1. Declarative/Explicit/Memory: refers
to knowledge or experiences that can
be consciously remembered.
A. Episodic memory: memories for
firsthand experiences/events
that we have had (e.g.
graduation day).
B. Semantic memory: our
knowledge of facts and concepts
about the world
 2. Implicit/non-declarative
memory;
 Refers to knowledge that we
cannot consciously access;
A. Procedural memory: it is
the knowledge of
procedures or skills:
Examples;
 Riding a bike/car
 Tying your shoe laces

Why implicit?
You don’t have to consciously remember
the steps involved in these actions to
perform them
Serial Position Effect

 Bed
 Fresh
 Egg
 Teacher
 Radio
 Alarm
 Tomato
 Sugar
 Blanket
 Beer
 Hospital
 Freedom
 Election
Forgetting: Meaning & Concepts

1. What is forgetting?
2. what causes forgetting?
3. Is forgetting bad/good?
 Meaning and Concepts of
Forgetting
 It is the apparent loss of
information already
stored & encoded in the
LTM.
 It is the inability to
recall what has been
learned.
 Theories of Forgetting

1. The Decay Theory

2. Interference theory
3. Displacement Theory
4. Motivated Forgetting
5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
 1. Decay Theory/Disuse
Memory traces/engram fades with
time if they are not accessed now
and then.

 Hermann
Ebbinghaus first
began to study
forgetting using
nonsense
syllables
 He used 3-letter
nonsense
syllables that
look like words
but are
 2. Interference Theory

Forgetting occurs because

similar items of
information interfere on
another in either storage
or retrieval.
 Types of
Interference

proactive Retroactive
Interferenc Interferenc
e e
A. Proactive interference: when old
learning interferes with new one
(Example: Old password interferes
with the new password)
B. Retroactive interference: when new
learning interferes with old one
(Example; new phone number
 3.Displacement Theory

 New information entering

in the memory can wipe
out old information.
 Just as recording on an
audio or videotape will
obliterate/wipe out the
original material.
 4. Motivated Forgetting
 Freud maintained that
people forget those
memories that are too
threatening or painful
to live with.
 According to this
theory, people forget
because they are
motivated to forget.
5. Cue Dependent Forgetting

 Often when we need to remember,

we rely on retrieval cues
 Retrieval cue: items of
information that can help us
find the specific information
we‘re looking for.
 This is the “tip of the tongue
phenomenon”
 When we lack retrieval cues, we
may feel as if we have lost the
password for our email account.
 Improving Memory
1. Pay attention and reduce
interference
2. Make a connection between new
information and what you already
know.
3. Chunking-Organization
4. Use distributed practice than
massed practice-due to the serial
position effect
5. Testing oneself: than
reviewing/rereading
6. Overlearning: continue to study
known material
7. Communicate: say what you are
studying out loud, it helps to order
 Chapter Five
Motivation and Emotion
 I. Motivation

 The word motivation:comes from the

Latin word “Mover’, which means “to
move’.
 Motivation: any force that initiate,
energizes, directs and sustain a
behavior.

A. Intrinsic motivation: when the act

itself is satisfying in some internal
manner.
B. Extrinsic motivation: when the act
leads to an outcome that is external
to a person.
 Approaches/Theories of
motivation

1. Instinct Theory
2. Drive-reduction Theory
3. Arousal Theory
4. Incentive Theory
5. Cognitive Theory
6. Humanistic theory
 1. Instinct Theory

States that motivation is the result

of innate, genetic programming
(unlearned).

Examples of instincts;
 Curiosity
 Migrating
 Sucking
 Grasping
 Parental love
 2. Drive Reduction Theory

Drive theories assume that

people are always trying to
reduce internal tension
(Physiological need)
3. Arousal Theory

• Our needs go beyond

reducing drives.
• This is engaging in certain
activity to increase
excitement
4. Incentive Theory

According to incentive
theory, motivation comes
from the environment
around you.
 5. Humanistic Theory

 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

suggested that human motives
are organized in to a hierarchy of
needs.
 He said that lower level needs
must be met before higher level
needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
II: Emotion
 II: Emotion
 Emotion is derived from the Latin
word “Emovere” means “to excite/
agitate”.
 Emotion: a state characterized by
a) Physiological arousal (heart
rate, blood pressure,
perspiration etc.
b) Behavioral changes (facial
expressions, gestures,
posture),
c) Subjective feelings (labeling it
as: anger, fear, happiness,
sadness)
 Theories of emotion
1. James- Lang Theory of Emotion
 Argued that physiological changes
precede emotional experiences.
 “I am afraid because I am aroused’,
I’m embarrassed because my face is
red
2.Cannon-Bard Theory
 Argued that physiological &
psychological reactions occur at the
same time.
3. Schechter-Singer
 Proposed that the physical
arousal and labeling of the
arousal have to happen
before emotion occurs:
 Chapter Six
Personality

Who am
I?
 Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you

are expected to:
 Explain what personality is in
general
 Explain personality using the
different theories
 Identify the basic features of
personality theories
 What is
personality?
The word personality comes from the
Latin term "persona“ (mask) worn by
Greek actors)

Definition of Personality
 Individual’s consistent patterns
of feeling, thinking & behaving
across time & situations.
 The sum total of characteristics
on the basis of which people
can be differentiated from each
other.
 Personality includes everything
about the person
Theories of Personality

1.The Psychoanalytic
Perspective
2.The Learning Perspective
3.The Humanistic
Perspective
4.The Biological Perspective
5.The Trait Perspective
 I. Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud’s theory involves four
components:

A. Level of
consciousness
B. Structure of
personality
C. Defense mechanisms
D.Psycho-sexual stages
 I. The Levels of Consciousness

A. The Conscious mind : contains all

the things of which a person is
aware at any moment.
B. The Preconscious mind : contains
information that a person is not
aware of at the moment, but
easily accessible when needed.
C. The Unconscious mind: a safe
haven for our recollection of
painful experiences that
determines human behavior &
personality.
 II. Structure of personality
 Freud
held that personality consisted of
three separate, but interacting
components:
A. Id
B. Ego
C. Super Ego

 Theyare not actual physical structures

found in certain part of the brain.
 Theyrepresent aspects of personality
that describe the interaction of
various processes and forces.
A. Id: If it feels good, do it
 Unconscious immoral part of the
personality that exists at birth.
 Contains all of the basic biological
drives, for example, hunger, thirst,
sex, aggression.
 These drives are fueled by―psychic
energy (libido), as Freud called it.
 Operates according to the pleasure
principle.
 Its goal is reduction of tension and the
maximization of satisfaction.
B. The Super Ego: The Moral-
Watchdog
 Helps to integrate broad moral values
of society.
 These broad moral values are learned
through
Socialization process in the family
Religious institutions
From the community at large.
 Super ego has two parts,
i. The conscience: prevents us from
doing immoral things.
ii. The ego ideal: motivates us to do
what is morally proper.
C. Ego: The Executive Director
 Conscious, rational & logical than
the Id.
 Makes decisions, controls actions,
and allows problem solving of higher
order
 Mediates opposing tendencies of the
id & the superego and enables to
adjust to the environment.
 Ego develops around the second
year of child's life when the child
interacts with reality.
  A person who has a strong ego, which
can balance the demands of the id
and the superego, has a healthy
personality.
 However, imbalances in the system
can lead to neurosis (negative
emotions & unhealthy behavior)

1. A person who isExample

dominated by his Id
might be
 Narcissistic
 Impulsive.
2. A person with a dominant Superego
might be
 Controlled by feelings of guilt
 Restrain from socially acceptable
pleasures
 III. Defense Mechanisms

 For Freud, our personality is the

outcome of continual battle
among the id, the ego &
superego.
 Their struggle for dominance
sometimes produces anxiety &
guilt.
 To protect against anxiety and
guilt, people use “psychological
Defense mechanisms”.
1. Repression
 Involvesbanishing threatening
thoughts, feelings, and memories into
the unconscious.
Example
1. Let’s say your car is making a strange
noise, but because you don’t have the
money to get it fixed, you just turn up
the radio so that you no longer hear
the strange noise. Eventually you
forget about it.
2. A person who witnesses his parents
having sex is later unable to remember
anything about the event.
2. Regression
 Thisis a retreat to earlier or
primitive forms of behavior.
Example; A five-year-old child who
resents the arrival of a newborn sibling
may act like a baby and revert to
drinking out of a bottle.

3. Denial
 Thisis refusal to recognize or
acknowledge a threatening situation.
Example; Denying that your
physician's diagnosis of cancer is
correct and seeking a second opinion
4. Rationalization
 This
is giving a plausible and
acceptable reason for one's behavior in
order to hide one's real motives.

Example
1. Stating that you were fired
because you didn't kiss up the
boss, when the real reason
was your poor performance.
2. A woman with a closet full of
dresses buys a new one
because she doesn't have
anything to wear.
5. Displacement
 Involvesexpressing feelings toward a person who
is less threatening than the person who is the
true target.
Example:
1. Slamming a door instead of hitting the
person,
2. yelling at your spouse after an
argument with your boss.
6. Projection
 Involvesattributing one's own undesirable feelings
to other people.
Example;
 When losing an argument, you state,
“You're just Stupid”.
7. Reaction Formation
 Thisis taking the opposite belief because the true
belief causes anxiety.
 Acting in a manner exactly opposite to our true feelings.
Example;
 Someone may be extremely calm and relaxed,
but may have a lot of repressed hostility and
anger that they are unaware of on a conscious
level.
8. Undoing
 Thisis the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior
or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful.
Example
 After realizing you just insulted your significant
other unintentionally, you might spend then the
next hour praising their beauty, charm &
9. Sublimation
 Involvesexpressing sexual or aggressive behavior
through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.
Example:
Sublimating your aggressive impulses
toward a career as a boxer;
10. Compensation
 Involvespsychologically counter-balancing
perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in
other arenas.
Example
When a person says, “I may not know how
to cook, but I can sure do the dishes!,”
they’re trying to compensate for their lack
of cooking skills by emphasizing their
 IV. Psycho-Sexual Stages of
According toDevelopment
Freud
 If people look at the development of
their behavior, they could gain insight
into their current behavior.
 The first five years have a decisive
effect on the development of adult
personality.
 From birth on we have an innate
tendency to seek pleasure through
stimulation of parts of the body that are
sensitive to touch:
A. Mouth,
B. Anus &
C. Genitals.
 Freud called these parts Erogenous
Zones.
 All people pass through five critical
 Conflicts that are not fully resolved
can result in fixation.
 The child may grow into an adult but
will still carry emotional and
psychological “baggage” from that
earlier fixed stage.

Fixation:
 Reversing to an earlier stage of
psychosexual development and
displaying the childish behavior.
 Being developmentally arrested
or stopped at a particular stage.
1. Oral Stage (Birth-18 months)

 The “baby‘s mouth” is the focal point of

pleasure.
 The infant interacts with the world
mainly through “eating”.
 Infants at this stage suck, and bite
anything that will fit into their mouth.
 Infants who receive either too
little or too much gratification
become fixated or locked in the
oral stage
1. A child with too little oral
gratification will have the
following characteristics
 Over eating & drinking too
much,
 Chain smoking & talking too
much,
 Nail biting & gum chewing and
 Aggressive and pessimistic
2. A child with too much oral
gratification will have the
following characteristics
 Dependent and optimistic
 Demand satisfaction from
others

2. Anal Stage (18 months-3 years)
 The major source of pleasure
changes from the mouth to the anal
region.
 Children are trained about toilet.
 Children derive considerable
pleasure from both retention &
expulsion of feces.

If this toilet training was either

too harsh or too lenient, children
would become fixated in the
anal stage and become likely to
regress to this stage
1. Anal expulsive personalities: If
parents had been too lenient
 Messy
 Careless
 Disorganized
 Prone to emotional outbursts
2. Anal retentive personality: If
parents had been very harsh
 Stingy
 Stubborn
 Excessively neat
 Orderly
 Punctual.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years )

 Interest focuses on the genitals

and pleasure is derived from
fondling them.
 Pleasure comes from masturbation
& sex play.
 The penis is the focus for both boys
& girls.

Children at this engage in a

childhood game called “I will
show you mine, if you show me
yours.”
I. Girls experience Penis Envy &
Electra Complex

A. Penis Envy
 Girls would feel that they were
missing something vital (Penis)
and could not be complete without
it, leading to feelings of inferiority
called “penis envy”.
B. Electra Complex
 Similarly, girls develop sexual
attractions to their fathers and
jealousy of their mothers.
II. Boys experience Castration Anxiety
& Oedipus Complex:

A. Castration Anxiety
 Boys up on seeing that the girls
had no penis, would think that
the penis can be lost or cut off
and develop a fear of losing the
penis.
B. Oedipus Complex:
 Boys develop both sexual
attractions to their mothers and
jealousy of their fathers during
this stage.
 Fixation in the phallic stage involves

 Immature sexual attitudes

 Promiscuous sexual behavior &
being very vain.
 Adult males behave in a brash,
boastful, and reckless manner.
 Men may be “mamma’s boys”
who never quite grow up
 Women may look for much
older father figures to marry.
 4. Latency Stage (6-11 years)

At this stage:
 Children will remain in dormant
sexual feelings.
 Children develop intellectually,
physically & socially but not
sexually.
 Boys play with other boys, girls
play only with girls, and each
thinks the opposite sex is pretty
awful.
5. Genital Stage (Age 12 and above)

During this stage

 Sexual feelings reemerge & the
focus is on mature adult
sexuality (sexual intercourse).
 The focus of sexual curiosity &
attraction will become
A. Other adolescents,
B. Rock stars,
C. Movie stars and
D.Other objects of adoration.
II. Behaviorist view of personality

 Behaviorists do not believe in

biological determinism:
 They do not see personality traits
as inborn.
 They view personality as
significantly shaped by the
reinforcements and consequences.
 Believe that environment was solely
responsible for all behavior.
 Argue that personality is best
understood by looking at features
of a person‘s environment.
 III. Biological Approaches

How much of our

personality is inborn?

Bio-psychologists believe that

personality is inherited &
physiological processes determine
differences in personalities.
 In the field of behavioral genetics, the
Minnesota Study of Twins conducted
research on 350 pairs of twins from
1979 to 1999.
 Findings of the study indicated
Identical twins, whether raised
together or apart, have very similar
personalities.
 These heritable traits includes;
A. Leadership skills
B. Obedience to authority
C. Intelligence
D. Resistance to stress & fear
 Constitutional psychology examines the
relationship between the structure of the
human body and behavior.
 According to William H. Sheldon, your
body type can be linked to your
personality.
 Sheldon proposed three body types
(somatotypes)
1. Ectomorphs
2. Endomorphs
3. Mesomorphs
1. Ectomorphs: are thin with a small bone
structure and very little fat on their bodies.
Personality type:
Anxious, self-conscious, artistic,
thoughtful, quiet, and private.
They enjoy intellectual stimulation and
Feel uncomfortable in social situations.
2. Endomorphs: Endomorphs have narrow
shoulders and wide hips, and carry extra fat
on their round bodies.
Personality type:
Relaxed, comfortable, good-humored,
even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant.
Endomorphs enjoy affection and detest
3. Mesomorph
 have large bone structure, well-defined
muscles, broad shoulders, narrow waists, and
attractive, strong bodies.
Personality type:
 Adventurous, assertive, competitive, and
fearless.
 They are curious and enjoy trying new
things, but can also be obnoxious and
aggressive.
Skinner
 Human beings are infinitely
changeable.
 Personality develops over our
entire life, not only in the first
few years.
 Our responses can change as
we come across new situations;
IV. Humanistic Theories of
Personality

Founders;
1. Abraham
Maslow
2. Carl Rogers
Abrham Maslow (1908-1970)
 Studied people who were considered
to be healthy, creative, and
productive.
 Motivational processes lie at the
very core of personality
development.
 Depicted the human being as a
‘’wanting organism’’ who rarely
reaches a state of complete
satisfaction.
 Humans have five hierarchy of
needs.
A. Physiological needs
B. Safety and security needs
C. Belongingness and love needs
D. Self-esteem needs
E. Self-actualization needs.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
 Human beings are always
striving to fulfill their innate
capacities and become
everything they want.
 An important tool in human
self-actualization is the
development of self-concept.
 Positive regard is vital to cope
with stress and to strive to
achieve self-actualization.
 How would you respond
to the question, “Who am
I?”

A. If your response is primarily

positive,
 You tend to feel good about
who you are
 You see the world as a safe
& positive place.
B. If your response is mainly
negative,
 You may feel unhappy with
who you are.
 The self is divided into two
categories:
A. The Ideal Self: The person that
you would like to be;
B. The Real Self: The person you
actually are.
 We need to achieve congruence
between these two selves.
 High congruence leads to a
greater sense of self-worth &
productive life
 Great discrepancy between
ideal & actual selves lead to
abnormality.
 This can be achieved by giving
unconditional positive regard.
Major tents of Humanistic theory
 Each of us is responsible for
who we are and what we
become.
 Man is nothing else but what he
makes of himself.
 Each person is the chief
architect of his/her behavior
and experience.
 We are solely responsible for
the choices we make.

WE ARE OUR
CHOICES!
 V. Trait Theories
 All people possess certain traits, but that
the degree to which a particular trait
applies to a specific person varies and
can be quantified.
 The most common way to describe people
is to list these traits or qualities
possessed by them.
 The following theorists are famous for
their work on personality studies using
traits.
1. Golden Allport
2. Raymond Cattell
3. Hans Eysenck
4. Robert McCrae & Paul Costa (Five-
factor)
The Big Five: Five factor Personality
model

 This is the recent approach to

understand personality traits.
 The five factors are
A. Openness to experience
B. Conscientiousness,
C. Extraversion
D.Agreeableness
E. Neuroticism (Emotional
stability)
 These can be remembered by using
the acronym “OCEAN”
 Open Rigid
 Curios,  Uncreative
Openness to  
Imaginative Conforming
experience  
Creative predictable

Conscientious Impulsive
 Responsible  Quick to give
Conscientiousn  persevering up
ess  self-  Fickle
disciplined  Careless
 Punctual  Negligent
Extroversion Introversion
 Outgoing  Shy
 Talkative  Silent,
Extraversion  Sociable  Lonely
 Adventurous  Watchful
 Optimistic
 Agreeable Antagonistic
 Good  Irritable
Agreeablene
natured  Harsh
ss
 Cooperativ  Suspicious
e  Jealous
 Trusting
 Friendly

Neurotic Emotionally
stable

Neuroticism  Anxious  Calm

 Impulsive  Secure
 Worrier  Relaxed
 Insecure  Stable
 Chapter Seven
Abnormal Behaviors &
Psychotherapy
At the end of this unit, you are
expected to:
 Identify the criteria used for
defining psychological
disorders.
 Distinguish the different
types, features and symptoms
of psychological disorders.
 Use different theories to
explain the nature of
abnormality.
1. Have you ever had an
encounter with a person
with mental disorder?
2. How do you know that the
person is with mental
disorder?
Historical Definition of Abnormality

 Ancientpeople assumed that people

who were behaving oddly were
possessed by evil sprits.
 As a result they used trepanning &
exorcism as a healing technique.
Trepanning: cutting holes
into the skull of a living
person aiming to release the
“demons”.
Exorcism: formal casting out
of the demon through a
religious ritual.
 Contemporary Definition of
Abnormality
What is
Abnormality?

 Thereare different ways in which

abnormal behavior can be defined.
These are:
1.Statistical
Deviation
2.Subjective
Discomfort
3.Maladaptiveness
1. Statistical
deviation
 Frequently occurring behavior would
be considered normal, and behavior
that is rare would be abnormal.
 When someone behaves in culturally
unacceptable ways, this person is
most likely to have a psychological
problem.
 However, a mere deviation from
the mass can’t be sufficient for
diagnosis.
 Hence, we need to consider the
context in which a person‘s
behavior happens.
Examples of statistical deviation &
Abnormality
If you ask a classmate for a date & you
are rejected, you probably would feel
a little disappointed. Such feelings
would be normal.

But, if you felt extremely depressed;

So much that you lost interest in
activities
Had difficulty eating or sleeping
Felt utterly worthless, and
Contemplated suicide
Your feelings would be atypical, would
deviate from the norm, and could
signify the presence of a psychological
 Statistical deviation but not
Abnormality
For example, only about 4% of
people in the United States have
red hair.
 Although, red hair is considered an
atypical characteristic, but it is not
considered disordered, it’s just unusual.

Just because something is

atypical, however, does not
necessarily mean it is
disordered.
2. Subjective
Discomfort

Thisrefers experiencing a
great deal of discomfort or
emotional distress while
engaging in a particular
behavior.
However, all abnormal behavior
does not necessarily create
subjective discomfort in the
person communicating the act.
3.
Maladaptiveness

This refers inability to

function normally & fit
into society.
 This is when the
person finds it hard
to adapt to the
demands of day-to-
day living.
 In
general

 Psychological disorder is any

pattern of behavior, thoughts
& inner experiences that is;
A. Deviant
B. Distressful
C. Dysfunctional
D. Dangerous
 Perspectives on Psychological
Disorders
1. The Biological
Perspective
 Assumes that mental disorders arise
from such physical causes such as;
 Genetic factors
 Chemical imbalances &
 Brain abnormalities

Example
A person with schizophrenia would be
diagnosed by prescribing drugs to restore
the balance of dopamine.
2. Psychoanalytic
perspective
 Freudbelieved that the human mind
consists of three interacting forces:
 Id: pool of biological urges
 Ego: mediates between the id & reality
 Superego: represent society‘s moral
standards

Therefore, abnormal behavior is

caused by the ego’s inability to
manage the conflict between the
opposing demands of the id and the
superego.
3. Learning
perspective
People acquire abnormal behaviors
through the various kinds of
learning.
4. Cognitive
perspective

People's ways of thinking (internal

dialogue) about events in their life
determines their emotional and
behavioral patterns.
 Self-defeating thoughts lead to the
development of negative emotions &
self-destructive behaviors.
 Classification of Psychological
Disorders
Currently, there are
two classification
systems.
1.DSM: Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders
2.ICD: International
Classification of Diseases
 For our purpose, we will see eight
classifications of psychological
disorders
1. Anxiety Disorders
2. Obsessive-Compulsive
Related Disorders
3. Somatoform Disorders
4. Dissociative Disorders
5. Mood Disorders
6. Personality Disorders
7. Schizophrenia
8. Sexual Disorders
 1. Anxiety Disorders
 Disorderscharacterized by excessive
or unrealistic anxiety.
 Ananxiety disorder has five different
categories.

A.Phobic Disorders
B. Social Anxiety Disorder
C. Panic Disorder
D.Generalized Anxiety
Disorder
E. Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder
A. Phobic
Disorders

 This is an irrational & persistent fear

of something.
 The “something” might be an object or
a situation.
 Examples of Specific Phobias
Phobia Feared object/Situation
Acrophobia Heights
Aerophobia Flying
Arachnophobia Spiders
Claustrophobia Enclosed spaces
Cynophobia Dogs
Hematophobia Blood
Ophidiophobia Snakes
Mysophobia Fear of germs or dirt
Astraphobia Fear of thunder and
lightning
Trypanophobia Injections
Zenophobia Strangers
B. Social Anxiety
Disorder
Involve a fear of interacting with
others or being in a social situation.

People with a social phobia

 Are afraid of being evaluated
in some negative way by
others.
 Tend to avoid situations that
could lead to something
embarrassing.
 Some anxiety provoking situations
 Public speaking
include;
Having a
conversation
 Meeting strangers
 Eating in restaurants
&
 Using public
restrooms
 Peoplewith social phobia typically
perform safety behaviors.
Safety behaviors: mental
or behavioral acts that
reduce anxiety in social
situations.
 Some examples of Safety
behaviors
 Avoiding eye contact
 Rehearsing sentences before
speaking
 Assuming roles in social
situations that minimize
interaction with others
 Ask people many questions to
keep the focus off of oneself
 Wearing bland, neutral clothes to
avoid drawing attention
 Self-medication, such as drinking
alcohol
C. Panic
disorders
 Peoplewith panic disorder experience
recurrent (more than one) and
unexpected panic attacks.
Along with at least one month of
persistent concern about additional
panic attacks,

A panic attack: is defined as a period of

extreme fear or discomfort that
develops abruptly & reaches a peak
within 10 minutes.
 Symptom
s

 Accelerated heart rate

 Trembling
 Choking sensations
 Hot flashes or chills
 Dizziness or lightheadedness
 Fear of losing control or going
crazy
 Fears of dying
D. Generalized Anxiety
Disorder
 Thisis a relatively continuous state of
excessive, uncontrollable & pointless
worry and apprehension.

Example
An individual may worry about her
health and finances, the health of
family members, the safety of her
children, or minor matters (e.g., being
late for an appointment) without having
any legitimate reason for doing so.
E. Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder
 For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD,
he/she must be exposed to, witness, or
experience traumatic experience, this
includes;
A. Sexual violence
B. Combat
C. Natural
disasters
D.Terrorist attacks
E. Car accidents
F. Imprisonment
 Symptom
s
1. Re-experiencing of the
traumatic event: Flashbacks &
nightmares
2. Avoidance of stimuli connected
to the event
3. Persistent negative emotional
states (fear, anger, guilt &
shame)
4. Feelings of detachment from
others
..\..\Disorder videos\PTSD\Impact Short Fil
m Exploring PTSD by Elle Smart FIRST ACT
S.mp4
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Related
Disorders
 Involve
intrusive & unpleasant
thoughts & repetitive behaviors.
 Classified into three categories.

A. Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder
B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder
C. Hoarding Disorder
A. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(OCD)
 Experiencing thoughts & urges
that are intrusive & unwanted
(obsessions)
 Engaging in repetitive
behaviors or mental acts
(compulsions).
 This includes
 Spending hours each day
washing your hands
 Constantly checking whether
a stove or light has been
turned off
 Counting
 B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder
 Perceived flaw in ones physical
appearance that is either
nonexistent or barely
noticeable.
 A belief that a person is ugly or
deformed.
 This causes them to;
1. Constantly looking in the
mirror
2. Hide the offending body
part
3. Make comparisons with
others
4.disorder
..\..\..\2012 Engagevideos\Living
in cosmeticWith
surgery
Body
Dysmorphia & OCD UNILAD - Documentary.mp4
 C. Hoarding Disorder:
 These individuals accumulate
excessive amounts of usually
worthless items.
 They have great difficulty
parting with items because
1. They believe the items
might be of some later
use
2. They form a sentimental
attachment to the items
..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\Hoarder Denise'
s House Tour Hoarding Buried Alive.mp4
 3. Mood Disorders
What is the difference between mood
& emotion?
 Common cold of psychological
disorders.
 Severe & pervasive distortion of
ones emotional states.
 Extreme mood fluctuations &
inability to function normally.

Types of mood disorders

A. Major
Depressive
B. Bipolar
Disorder
A. Major Depressive
Disorder/Unipolar
 Depressed mood, nearly every
day
 Feeling sad, empty, hopeless
 Low self esteem
 Appearing tearful to others
 Loss of interest & pleasure in
usual activities. Such as;
1. Sports
2. Sex
3. Social events
4. Spending time with
family
 To receive a diagnosis; one must
experience a combination of the
 Significant
following symptoms.weight loss/weight
gain
 Significant decrease or
increase in appetite
 Difficulty falling
asleep/Sleeping too much
 Fatigue or loss of energy
 Feelings of worthlessness or
guilt;
 Poor concentration
 Suicidal ideation/Suicidal
thought
..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\Bipolar Disorder Short
Film (Stigma Awareness).mp4
  Experiencing mood states that
vacillate between depression &
mania
 People with BPD are characterized
by;
 Extreme talkativeness with
rapid speech
 Excessive energy despite lack
of sleep
 Inflated but unjustified self-
esteem
 Assume many tasks
simultaneously
 Irritable & restless
 Conversations
..\..\..\ with strangers
2012 disorder videos\BIPOLAR Short Film.mp4
4. Personality Disorders

Personality disorders: are

marked by inflexible, disruptive
& enduring behavior patterns
that impair social & other
functioning-whether the sufferer
recognizes that or not.
 TheDSM-5 recognizes 10 personality
disorders, organized into 3 different
clusters.
A. Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric
1. Paranoid personality disorder
2. Schizoid personality disorder
3. Schizotypal personality disorder
B. Cluster B disorders: Impulsive, Dramatic,
Erratic
1. Antisocial personality disorder
2. Histrionic personality disorder
3. Narcissistic personality disorder
4. Borderline personality disorder
C. Cluster C disorders: Nervous & fearful
1. Avoidant personality disorder
2. Dependent personality disorder
3. Obsessive-compulsive personality
disorder
I. Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric

A.Paranoid:
 Pervasive & unjustifiable
suspiciousness & mistrust of
others
 Reluctant to confide in or
become close to others;
 Reads hidden & threatening
meaning into caring events.
 Often jealous, guarded,
secretive, overly serious.
 Takes offense easily and bears
grudges (complaints);
B. Schizoid
 Lacks interest to form
relationships with others;
 Aloof and shows emotional
coldness and detachment;
 Indifferent to approval or
criticism of others;
 Humorless, distant,
daydreamer & absorbed with
own feelings
 Lacks close friends or
confidants.
C. Schizotypal
 Exhibits oddness in thought,
perception, emotion & speech
 Peculiar or eccentric manners
of speaking or dressing.
 Strange beliefs & magical
thinking
 Difficulty forming
relationships.
II. Cluster B disorders: Dramatic &
Erratic
A.Antisocial
 Continuously violates the
rights of others
 Often lies, fights, and has
problems with the law;
 Impulsive and fails to think
ahead;
 Deceitful and manipulative in
order to gain profit or
pleasure;
 Irresponsible and fails to hold
down a job or pay financial
debts;
 Lacks remorse over misdeeds.
B. Histrionic
 Excessively overdramatic,
emotional, and theatrical;
 Feels uncomfortable when not
the center of others’
attention;
 Grandiose language,
provocative dress,
exaggerated illnesses, all to
gain attention.
 Believes that everyone loves
them.
 Emotional & enthusiastic.
..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\The Fake Samuel
Zemichael Speaking to Students DireTube
Video by FanaBCvia torchbrowser
C. Narcissistic
 Overinflated & unjustified
sense of self-importance.
 Preoccupied with fantasies
of success;
 Assumes others will
recognize they are superior.
 Good first impressions but
poor longer-term
relationships.
D. Borderline
 Unstable in self-image,
mood, and behavior;
 Can’t tolerate being alone &
chronic feelings of
emptiness;
 Mood swings, identity
problems,
 Unstable and intense
relationships with others;
 Impulsive, unpredictable,
and self-damaging Behavior.
III. Cluster C disorders: Nervous &
Fearful
A. Avoidant
 Socially inhibited &
oversensitive to negative
evaluation;
 Avoids occupations that
involve interpersonal
contact.
 Feels inadequate and views
self as socially inept and
unappealing;
 Unwilling to take risks or
engage in new activities.
B. Dependent
 Allows others to take over and
run their life;
 Are submissive, clingy, and
fears separation;
 Can’t make decisions without
advice & reassurance from
others;
 Lacks self-confidence; cannot
do things on their own;
 Feels uncomfortable or
helpless when alone.
C. Obsessive-Compulsive
 Pervasive need for
perfectionism;
 Preoccupied with details,
rules, order & schedules;
 Excessive devotion to work at
the expense of leisure &
friendship.
 Rigid, inflexible, and
stubborn;
 5. Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia: severe &

devastating disorder
characterized by
A. Disturbances in thought,
perception, emotion &
behavior.
B. Significant impairment in
many day-to-day activities
 Symptoms of Schizophrenia

I. Delusions:
 False beliefs about the world that
tend to remain fixed even in the
face of evidence.
A. Paranoid/Delusions of
Persecution:
 A believe that others are
trying to hurt them in some
way.
 Example; a person may
believe that his mother is
plotting with the FBI to
poison his coffee
B. Delusions of Reference
 A believe that other people,
television characters & books
are specifically talking to
them.
C. Delusions of Influence:
 A believe that they are being
controlled by external forces,
such as the devil or cosmic
forces.
D. Delusions of Grandeur;
 People are convinced that
they are powerful people who
can save the world or have a
special mission.
E. Somatic Delusion
 A belief that something highly
abnormal is happening to
one’s body (e.g. One's kidneys
are being eaten by
cockroaches).
II. Hallucinations
 Conditions in which people
hear voices or see things or
people that are not really
there.

III. Speech Disturbance

 Schizophrenic people will
string words together on the
basis of sounds (called
clanging), such as
 “Come into house, louse,
mouse, mouse & cheese,
please, sneeze”,
IV. Disorganized motor behavior
 Becoming unusually active &
engaging in purposeless
movements.
 Exhibiting silly child-like
behaviors (giggling & self-
absorbed smiling),
 Displaying odd facial
expressions & gestures.
 Maintaining rigid & bizarre
posture for long periods of
time.
 Complete lack of movement
and verbal behavior.
V. Emotional Disturbance
 Noticeable decreases and
absences in certain emotions
or drives.
 Emotions can also be
excessive or inappropriate.

Example
A person might laugh when it
would be more appropriate to cry
or show sorrow.
Thank
you!