Compiler

Construction
Sohail Aslam
Lecture 12
Parse Trees
Leftmost G
derivation
E

E op E

x – E op E

2 * y
2
Parse Trees
G

E op E

x – E op E
evaluation order
x–(2*y)
2 * y
3
Parse Trees
G Rightmost
derivation
E

E op E

E op E * y
evaluation order
x – 2 (x – 2 ) * y
4
Precedence
 These two derivations point
out a problem with the
grammar
 It has no notion of
precedence, or implied
order of evaluation
5
Precedence
 These two derivations point
out a problem with the
grammar
 It has no notion of
precedence, or implied
order of evaluation
6
Precedence
To add precedence
 Create a non-terminal for
each level of precedence
 Isolate corresponding part
of grammar
7
Precedence
To add precedence
 Create a non-terminal for
each level of precedence
 Isolate corresponding part
of grammar
8
Precedence
To add precedence
 Create a non-terminal for
each level of precedence
 Isolate corresponding part
of grammar
9
Precedence
To add precedence
 Force parser to recognize
high precedence
subexpressions first.

10
Precedence
For algebraic expressions
 Multiplication and division,
first. (level one)
 Subtraction and addition,
next (level two)
11
Precedence
For algebraic expressions
 Multiplication and division,
first. (level one)
 Subtraction and addition,
next (level two)
12
Precedence
For algebraic expressions
 Multiplication and division,
first. (level one)
 Subtraction and addition,
next (level two)
13
1 Goal → expr
2 expr → expr + term
3 | expr – term
4 | term
5 term → term  factor
6 | term / factor
7 | factor
8 factor → number
9 | Id 14
 1 Goal → expr
2 expr → expr + term
level 3 | expr – term
two
4 | term
5 term → term  factor
level 6 | term / factor
one 7 | factor
8 factor → number
9 | Id
15
Precedence
This grammar is larger
 Takes more rewriting to
reach some of the terminal
symbols
 But it encodes expected
precedence
16
Precedence
This grammar is larger
 Takes more rewriting to
reach some of the terminal
symbols
 But it encodes expected
precedence
17
Precedence
This grammar is larger
 Takes more rewriting to
reach some of the terminal
symbols
 But it encodes expected
precedence
18
Precedence
 Produces same parse tree
under leftmost and rightmost
derivations
 Let’s see how it parses
x – 2 *y

19
Precedence
 Produces same parse tree
under leftmost and rightmost
derivations
 Let’s see how it parses
x – 2 *y

20
Precedence
Rule Sentential Form
- Goal
1 expr
3 expr – term
5 expr – term  factor
9 expr – term  <id,y>
7 expr – factor 
<id,y> 21
Derivations & Precedence
Rule Sentential Form
8 expr – <num,2> 
<id,y>
4 term – <num,2> 
<id,y>
7 factor – <num,2> 
The rightmost
<id,y> derivation
22
Parse Trees
G evaluation order
x–(2*y)
E

E T
–
T T F
*
F T <id,y
>
<id,x <num,2
23
> >
Parse Trees
G evaluation order
x–(2*y)
E

E T
–
T T F
*
F T <id,y
>
<id,x <num,2
24
> >
Precedence
 Both leftmost and rightmost
derivations give the same
expression
 Because the grammar
directly encodes the desired
precedence.
25
Precedence
 Both leftmost and rightmost
derivations give the same
expression
 Because the grammar
directly encodes the desired
precedence.
26
Ambiguous Grammars
 If a grammar has more
than one leftmost
derivation for a single
sentential form, the
grammar is ambiguous

27
Ambiguous Grammars
 If a grammar has more
than one rightmost
derivation for a single
sentential form, the
grammar is ambiguous

28
Ambiguous Grammars
 The leftmost and rightmost
derivations for a sentential
form may differ, even in an
unambiguous grammar
 Let’s consider the classic
if-then-else example
29
Ambiguous Grammars
if-then-else problem
Stmt → if Expr then Stmt
| if Expr then Stmt else
Stmt
| … other stmts ….

30
Ambiguous Grammars
 The following sentential
form has two derivations:

if E1 then if E2 then S else S2

31
Ambiguity if

Production 1, E1 then else

then
Production 2:
if S2
if E1 then
if E2 then S1
else S2 E2 then

S1
32
Ambiguity if

Production 2, E1 then
then
Production 1:
if
if E1 then
if E2 then S1
E2 then else
else S2
S1 S2
33
Ambiguity
if if

E1 then else E1 then

if S2 if

E2 then E2 then else

S1 S1 S2
34
Removing Ambiguity
 Must rewrite grammar to
avoid generating the
problem
 Match each else to
innermost umatched if

35
Removing Ambiguity
 Must rewrite grammar to
avoid generating the
problem
 Match each else to
innermost umatched if

36
Removing Ambiguity
1. Stmt → If E then Stmt
2. | If E then WithElse else Stmt
3. | Assignment
4. → If E then WithElse else
WithElse WithElse
5. | Assignment

37
Removing Ambiguity
Let derive the following using
the rewritten grammar:

if E1 then if E2 then A1 else A2

38
 Stmt

if Expr then Stmt

E1
if Expr then Withelse else Stmt

E2 A1 A2

This binds the else controlling A2 to inner if

39
Context-Free Grammars
 We have been using the
term context-free without
explaining why such rules
are in fact “free of context”.

40
Context-Free Grammars
 The simple reason is that
nonterminals appear by
themselves to the left of the
arrow in context-free rules:
A →

41
Context-Free Grammars
 The rule A → says that
A may be replaced by 
anywhere, regardless of
where A occurs.

42
Context-Free Grammars
 On the other hand, we
could define a context as
pair of strings , , such
that a rule would apply only
if  occurs before and 
occurs after the
nonterminal A.
43
Context-Sensitive Grammars
 We would write this as

 A  →  
 Such a rule in which
 ≠  is called a context-
sensitive grammar rule
44
Context-Sensitive Grammars
 We would write this as

 A  →  
 Such a rule in which
 ≠  is called a context-
sensitive grammar rule
45
 Parsing
Techniques
Parsing Techniques
Top-down parsers
 Start at the root of the parse
tree and grow towards
leaves.
 Pick a production and try to
match the input
47
Parsing Techniques
Top-down parsers
 Start at the root of the parse
tree and grow towards
leaves.ck a production and
try to match the input

48
Parsing Techniques
Top-down parsers
 Start at the root of the parse
tree and grow towards
leaves.
 Pick a production and try to
match the input
49
Parsing Techniques
Top-down parsers
 Bad “pick”  may need to
backtrack
 Some grammars are
backtrack-free.

50
Parsing Techniques
Top-down parsers
 Bad “pick”  may need to
backtrack
 Some grammars are
backtrack-free.

51
Parsing Techniques
Bottom-up parsers
 Start at the leaves and grow
toward root
 As input is consumed,
encode possibilities in an
internal state.
52
Parsing Techniques
Bottom-up parsers
 Start at the leaves and grow
toward root
 As input is consumed,
encode possibilities in an
internal state.
53
Parsing Techniques
Bottom-up parsers
 Start at the leaves and grow
toward root
 As input is consumed,
encode possibilities in an
internal state.
54