West Yangon Technological University

Department of Mechatronic Engineering

McE 61031 , System Design

Dr. Zin Mar Nyein

Professor& Head
[email protected]
09-5097600

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 Gas Sensor
 Gas sensors are essential components that are used in a variety of industries and applications to detect
and measure different gases in the environment.
 These sensors are essential for managing industrial operations, monitoring air quality, and
guaranteeing worker safety.
Gas Sensor Types
Gas sensors come in different types, each with its own unique characteristics and applications. Here are
four common types.

 Electrochemical Sensors
 These sensors utilize an electrochemical reaction to detect and measure specific gases. They consist of
electrodes immersed in an electrolyte.
 When the target gas interacts with the electrodes, a chemical reaction occurs, generating an electrical
signal.
 Electrochemical sensors are commonly used for detecting toxic gases like carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

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Continued,
 Semiconductor Sensors
 Semiconductor gas sensors employ metal oxide semiconductor materials that undergo changes in
conductivity when exposed to a target gas.
 The gas alters the electrical resistance of the material, producing a signal indicating the gas
concentration.
 Semiconductor sensors are cost-effective, compact, and widely used for detecting flammable gases
such as methane (CH4) and propane (C3H8).

 Catalytic Sensors
 Catalytic sensors detect combustible gases through a catalytic reaction. They consist of a heated wire
coil coated with a catalyst material.
 When a combustible gas interacts with the catalyst, it undergoes oxidation, releasing heat and
increasing the wire's temperature.
 This change in temperature is measured to determine the gas concentration.
 Catalytic sensors are commonly used for detecting hydrocarbons and are crucial in industrial settings.

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 Infrared (IR) Sensors

• Infrared gas sensors operate on the principle of infrared radiation absorption by gases. They emit
infrared light at specific wavelengths, which is absorbed by the target gas molecules.
• By measuring the amount of absorbed light, the sensor determines the gas concentration.
• Infrared sensors are effective for detecting gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and sulfur dioxide (SO2).

 Gas Sensor Working Principle

Gas sensors work by converting the presence of a target gas into a measurable signal, usually an
electrical output.
The working principle varies depending on the sensor type. Here's a simplified overview.

1. Detection
Gas sensors react to the target gas, causing a physical or chemical change in the sensor material.

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2. Transduction
The change in the sensor material is converted into a measurable signal, such as a change in resistance,
voltage, or current.

3. Signal Processing
The sensor's electrical output is processed and calibrated to provide an accurate measurement of the gas
concentration.

Applications of Gas Sensors

Gas sensors find applications across diverse industries and sectors, playing a crucial role in ensuring
safety, environmental protection, and process optimization. Here are some key applications:

(a) Environmental Monitoring

Gas sensors are vital for monitoring air quality in indoor and outdoor environments. They detect harmful
gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
ensuring a safe and healthy living and working environment.

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(b) Industrial Safety
Gas sensors are indispensable for worker safety in industries where hazardous gases are present. They
detect toxic and combustible gases, providing early warnings to prevent accidents or exposure to harmful
substances.

(c) Automotive Industry

Gas sensors are integrated into vehicles to monitor emissions and comply with environmental
regulations. They measure gases like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons,
contributing to improved fuel efficiency and reduced pollution.
(d) Leak Detection
Gas sensors are extensively used to detect leaks in various systems, including natural gas pipelines,
refrigeration systems, and chemical plants. They help identify leaks promptly, preventing potential
hazards and minimizing environmental impact.
(e) Industrial Processes
Gas sensors play a crucial role in controlling and optimizing industrial processes. They are used for
monitoring gas concentrations during production, detecting gas leaks, and ensuring process efficiency
and safety.
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 Flame Sensor
A flame sensor definition is a type of detector that is used to detect as well as react to the occurrence of a
fire or flame. A flame sensor frequently responds faster & more precisely as compared to a heat or smoke
sensor because of the mechanisms it utilizes to notice the flame.

Flame Sensor Working Principle

Flame sensors use UV (Ultraviolet) or IR (Infra-Red) or UV-IR technology to identify flames below a
second. These sensors react to a detected flame based on the installation, although it includes sounding
an alarm, disabling a fuel line & activating a fire control system.

The flame sensor with UV technology works by simply sensing the UV radiation. Generally, all fires
generate UV radiation at the ignition point so, in case of a fire, the sensor would become alert of it &
generate a series of pulses that are changed by detector electronics and gives an alarm output.

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 The flame sensor with IR technology works by checking the IR spectral band for particular

ornamentation that hot gases emit. But, this kind of device needs a flickering movement of the flame.
Generally, infrared radiation is not only generated by flames but also radiated from lamps, ovens, etc.
So, there is a high risk of a fake alarm
 The sensor with UV-IR is capable of detecting both UV & IR radiations, thus it possesses both sensors.

The combined sensor has a better rejection capacity for false alarms as compared to a separate UV/IR
detector.

Flame Sensor Types

There are different types of flame sensors like ultraviolet, infrared, Ultraviolet/Infrared, Multi-Spectrum
Infrared, IR3 flame detector.

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UV Flame Sensors
UV frame or ultraviolet frame sensors are used to detect ultraviolet radiation because most fires emit
ultraviolet radiation

Infrared Flame Sensors

Infrared flame sensors monitor IR radiation. These sensors also detect & analyze the IR spectral band to
discover particular predefined prototypes given off through hot gases. The technology used by these
sensors is flame recognition technology which detects the near-infrared radiation with a Charge-coupled
device (CCD).

Ultraviolet/Infrared Flame Detectors

Ultraviolet/infrared flame detectors add sensors for both UV & IR radiation. These two sensors simply
work separately. But, some included circuitry & wiring to assist the detector procedure & evaluate both
UV and IR signals.It limits fire detection to comprise fires that simply produce both UV & IR radiation.

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Multi-Spectrum Infrared Flame Detectors
 MSIR sensors utilize many IR wavelengths to differentiate flame-producing radiation from the sources of

non-flame-production radiation. MSIR sensors respond to fires very quickly up to a distance of 200 feet
both indoors & outdoors. These sensors are capable of detecting flames even between the smokiest of
fires and also not causes fake alarms because of sunlight, lighting, otherwise other hot objects within the
surrounding area.

IR3 Flame Detector

 IR3 flame sensors compare the emission patterns among three various infrared spectral bands &

the radiation bands ratio. Usually, these types of flame sensors are programmed to notice one
radiation band in the 4.4-micrometer range & the remaining two bands range below & above the
4.4-micrometer spectrum. So this sensor is capable of separating the actual flames & the non-
flame radiations that affect the results.
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Flame Sensor Application
 The flame sensor applications include the following.
 A flame-sensor is mainly used to detect & react to the occurrence of a flame/fire.
 Flame sensors are used in fire alarms, fire detection, drying systems, fire fighting
robot, industrial heating, hydrogen stations, domestic heating systems, industrial gas
turbines, gas-powered cooking devices, etc.
 These are used in MDF factories, pharmaceuticals, fume cupboards, coal handling,
spray booths, nuclear industry, fabrication of metal, clothing dryers, aircraft hangars,
gas fuelled cookers, domestic heating systems, heating & drying systems in
industries, generators & storage tanks.

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 Smoke Sensor
A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire.

Smoke detectors are usually housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk
about 150 millimetres in diameter and 25 millimetres thick, but shape and size vary.
Smoke can be detected either optically or by physical process.
 The Four Types of Smoke Detectors

(1) Ionization Smoke Detector

(2) Photoelectric Sensor Smoke Detector

(3) Heat Detector

(4) Photoelectric and Ionization Sensor Smoke Alarm

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Ionization Smoke Detector
Ionization smoke detectors rely on a constant electrical current. This current runs

between two electrically charged plates within the device and is only disrupted when
smoke enters. When this happens, it triggers an alarm signal to signal a fire.
Typically, this fire alarm is touted for detecting fast-burning fires fast.

Photoelectric

• Photoelectric smoke detectors operate similarly to ionization detectors, however,

instead of electricity, they rely on a laser beam. This light is scattered when it
encounters smoke, signaling the alarm to sound. This is an incredibly reliable fire
alarm that works well with small fires.

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Heat Detector

Heat detectors signal an alarm when they sense a change in air temperature due to
flames. However, since it's temperature-reliant, these alarms do experience false
alarms due to humidity or steam. For this reason, these are most often relied upon in
storage facilities or warehouses.

Combined Ionization and Photoelectric

• A go-to in the industry, a hybrid of ionization and the photoelectric detector is often
deemed the best option on the market. With both an electrical current and a light
beam, this device is one of the fastest you can get, detecting smoke rapidly to sound a
warning alarm.

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Working Principles

Two charged plates inside of the ionization smoke detector create a flow of positively
and negatively charged ions. The smoke alarm triggers when smoke breaks the
constant flow of ions.
Photoelectric alarms work using a photoelectric sensor and a light source. As smoke
enters the chamber and crosses the path of the light beam, light is scattered by the
smoke particles, aiming it toward the sensor, which in turn triggers the alarm.

Heat detectors work on a similar principle used by smoke detectors, by tracking the
temperature instead of smoke. Heat detectors generally detect the heat that comes
as a result of combustion. The devices trigger an alarm when they sense a rapid rise in
temperature or when a certain temperature is reached.

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 Application of Smoke Detector
A smoke detector is an electronic fire-protection device that automatically senses
the presence of smoke, as a key indication of fire, and sounds a warning to
building occupants. Commercial and industrial smoke detectors issue a signal to a
fire alarm control panel as part of a building's central fire alarm system.

Photoelectric smoke detectors may be best for homes because they can accurately
detect a wider range of fires. Many fires in the home start as smoldering ashes, and
the low heat prevents ionization detectors from detecting them.

Most house fires are categorized as fast-flaming fires, which is why ionization alarms
are popular in homes. To be safe, we recommend having both types of home fire
detectors installed or installing combination smoke alarms that detect multiple types
of fires.

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A heat detector is usually used in rooms where there is excessive dust or fumes –
for instance, a garage or cellar – which a smoke alarm can mistake for dust, soot or
combustible elements in the atmosphere. It's also used in rooms where highly-
flammable chemicals are stored.

For best protection, it is recommended both (ionization and photoelectric)

technologies be used in homes. In addition to individual ionization and
photoelectric alarms, combination alarms that include both technologies in a single
device are available.

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 Humidity Sensor
Humidity sensors are electronic devices enabling you to measure the environment’s
humidity and convert the data into a corresponding electrical signal that can be used
for different purposes. You might have heard a different humidity sensor name:
Hygrometers! They are also called hygrometers but “humidity sensor” is more
common.

Working Principles
Humidity sensors have been designed in a way that they can detect any changes
altering electrical currents or the air’s temperature.
Different types of humidity sensors can monitor minute changes in the atmosphere
and can calculate the level of humidity in the air by the collected data.

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 Different types of the Humidity Sensor
 Humidity sensors are categorized based on their size as well as their functionality. They
have two different methods to measure humidity: Absolute Humidity (also known as AH)
and Relative Humidity (RH).
 The type that measures absolute humidity utilizes two probes. One of them measures dry
nitrogen and the other one has been designed to measure the environment’s air. By having
these two data, the sensor can calculate AH.

Capacitive
 Capacitive humidity sensors are one of the most common relative humidity sensors.
 Capacitive humidity sensors have been designed to measure the relative humidity by the
placement of a thin metal oxide between two electrodes.
 When there’s a change in the relative humidity of the atmosphere, the electrical capacity of
the metal oxide will change. These sensors are linear and they can measure relative
humidity ranging from zero to 100 percent.
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 Resistive
Another type of humidity sensor is the resistive one which adds up to the one you’ve already read
above in the description of “what is a humidity sensor?”
This sensor measures the atoms’ electrical impedance by utilizing ions in salts. The change in the
humidity causes a change in the resistance of the salt medium’s electrodes.
These sensors are capable of storing an electric charge and they are also among the most common
RH sensors.
These sensors cost less than other types and they can be used for remote monitoring applications
such as large places where the distance between the signaling circuit and the element of the sensor is
large.
Thermal
Thermal sensors are categorized as the type that measures the AH (or absolute humidity).
They are great for places with high temperature or ones that have corrosive environments.
For measuring the humidity of the environment with this humidity sensor, one thermal
sensor measures the ambient air while the other sensor is encased in dry nitrogen.
Then, the difference between the two collected data enables you to measure the humidity. In
other words, they measure absolute humidity by finding the difference between the dry air
and the humid air’s thermal conductivity.
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 Application of Humidity Sensor
Humidity sensors are used for several applications for measuring humidity.
 Capacitive relative humidity sensors are used in HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) systems, automobiles, food processing systems, printers, and domestic
appliances such as refrigerators, ovens, and laundry machines.

Resistive humidity sensors have been used for environmental control of household
electrical appliances such as room air conditioners, refrigerators,
dehumidifiers/humidifiers, the image quality control of OA equipment such as
printers/copiers, and the control of air conditioners for automotive use.

Temperature and humidity transmitters are commonly used in a variety of

applications, including: -HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) Systems:
To monitor and control indoor temperature and humidity levels. -Agriculture: To track
environmental conditions for crop management and optimization.
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Final Control Operation
Final control element operations involve the steps necessary to convert the control
signal (generated by a process controller) into proportional action on the process
itself.
For a typical process-control application, the conversion of a process-controller
signal to a control function can be represented by the steps shown in Figure 1. The
input control signal may take many forms, including an electric current, a digital
signal, or pneumatic pressure.

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Signal Conversions
This step refers to the modifications that must be made to the control signal to
properly interface with the next stage of control—that is, the actuator.
Thus, if a valve control element is to be operated by an electric motor actuator, then a
4- to 20-mA dc control signal must be modified to operate the motor. If a dc motor is
used, modification might be current-to voltage conversion and amplification.
Actuators
• The results of signal conversions provide an amplified and/or converted signal
designed to operate (actuate) a mechanism that changes a controlling variable in the
process.
• The actuator is a translation of the (converted) control signal into action on the
control element.
Thus, if a valve is to be operated, then the actuator is a device that converts the
control signal into the physical action of opening or closing the valve.

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Control Element
At last we get to the final control element itself. This device has direct influence on
the process dynamic variable and is designed as an integral part of the process.
 Thus, if flow is to be controlled, then the control element, a valve, must be built
directly into the flow system. Similarly, if temperature is to be controlled, then some
mechanism or control element that has a direct influence on temperature must be
involved in the process. This could be a heater/cooler combination that is electrically
actuated by relays or a pneumatic valve to control influx of reactants.

A process-control system showing the final control operations 24

Signal Conversion
The principal objective of signal conversion is to convert the low-energy control
signal to a high-energy signal to drive the actuator. Controller output signals are
typically in one of three forms: (1) electrical current, usually 4- to 20-mA; (2)
pneumatic pressure, usually 3 to 15 psi or 20 to 100 kPa; and (3) digital signals,
usually TTL-level voltages in serial or parallel format.
Analog Electrical Signals
Many of the methods of analog signal conditioning are used in conversions necessary
for final control. The following paragraphs summarize some of the more common
approaches.
Relays A common conversion is to use the controller signal to activate a relay when a
simple ON/OFF or two-position control is sufficient.
Amplifiers High-power ac or dc amplifiers often can provide the necessary conversion
of the low-energy control signal to a high-energy form. Such amplifiers may serve for
motor control, heat control, light-level control, and a host of other industrial needs
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Motor Control Many motor control circuits are designed as packaged units that accept
a low-level dc signal directly to control motor speed. If such a system is not available, it
is possible to build circuits using amplifiers along with SCRs or TRIACs to perform this
control.

Digital Electrical Signals

Conversions of digital signals to forms required by final control operations usually are
carried out using systems already discussed. We mention again, however, the basic
elements of the output interface between computer and final control .

ON/OFF Control
There are many cases in process control where the control algorithm is accomplished by
simple commands to outside equipment to change speed, turn on (or off), move up, and so
on. In such cases, the computer can simply load a latched output line with a 1 or 0 as
appropriate. Then it is a simple matter to use this signal to close a relay or activate some
other outside circuit.
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DAC
When the digital output must provide a smooth control, as it does in valve positioning,
the computer must provide an input to a DAC that then determines an appropriate
analog output.

Direct Action
As the use of digital and computer techniques in process control has become more
widespread, new methods of final control have been developed that can be actuated
directly by the computer.

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Pneumatic Signals
 In general, pneumatic signals are carried with dry air as the gas and signal information are
adjusted to lie within the range of 3 to 15 psi. In SI unit systems, the range of 20 to 100 kPa is
used. There are three types of signal conversion of primary interest.
Amplification
• A pneumatic amplifier, also called a booster or relay, raises the pressure and/or air flow volume
by some linearly proportional amount from the input signal. Thus, if the booster has a pressure
gain of 10, the output would be 30 to 150 psi for an input of 3 to 15 psi.

Nozzle/Flapper System
• An important signal conversion is from pressure to mechanical motion and vice versa. This
conversion can be provided by a nozzle/flapper system (sometimes called a nozzle/baffle system)

Current-to-Pressure Converters The current-to-pressure converter, or simply I/P converter, is an

important element in process control. Often, when we want to use the low-level electric current
signal to do work, it is easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal. The I/P converter gives
us a linear way of translating the 4- to 20-mA current into a 3- to 15-psig signal.
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POWER ELECTRONICS
An important part of final control operations is electrical signal energy conversion.
This means taking the low-energy control signal (e.g., 4-20 mA) and using this to
impart a large energy impact on the plant (e.g., controlling a 100-Hp (74.6 kW)
motor).
This kind of signal conversion is carried out using high-power electronics devices.
Generally power electronics refers to an assortment of very special semiconductor
devices that have been designed and developed to allow control of hundreds to
thousands of amperes at hundreds to thousands of volts.
Switching Devices Controlling Devices
 SCR Bipolar Junction Transistor
 GTO Power MOSFET
 TRIAC IGBT

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ACTUATORS
 If a valve is used to control fluid flow, some mechanism must physically open or close the valve. If a
heater is to warm a system, some device must turn the heater on or off or vary its excitation. These are
examples of the requirements for an actuator in the process-control loop.
Electrical Actuators
Solenoid
 A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical motion, usually
rectilinear (in a straight line) .
 The solenoid consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded. The
coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc or ac.
 Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or push force when excited by
the specified voltage.
 This force may be expressed in newtons or kilograms in the SI system and in pounds or ounces in the
English system.
 Some solenoids are rated only for intermittent duty because of thermal constraints. In this case, the
maximum duty cycle (percentage on time to total time) will be specified. Solenoids are used when a
large, sudden force must be applied to perform some job.
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Electrical Motors
Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and produce a continuous
rotation as a result.
Motor styles and sizes vary as demands for rotational speed (revolutions per minute,
or rpm), starting torque, rotational torque, and other specifications vary.
There are numerous cases where electrical motors are employed as actuators in
process control.
Probably the most common control situation is where motor speed drives some part
of a process, and must be controlled to control some variable in the process—the
drive of a conveyor system, for example. There are many types of electrical motors,
each with its special set of characteristics

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