Chapter 4

Network Layer

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Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network
layer services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 broadcast, multicast
 instantiation, implementation in the
Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
 transport segment from application
transport
sending to receiving network
data link
host physical
network network
data link
on sending side
data link
 network
physical physical
data link

encapsulates segments physical network

data link
network
data link
into datagrams physical physical

 on receiving side, network

data link
network
data link
delivers segments to physical
network
physical

transport layer
data link
physical
application
 network layer protocols network
data link network
transport
network
in every host, router network
data link
physical data link
physical
data link
physical
 router examines header physical

fields in all IP
datagrams passing
through it
Network Layer 4-4
Two key network-layer
functions
 forwarding: move analogy:
packets from
router’s input to  routing: process of
appropriate router planning trip from
output source to dest
 routing: determine  forwarding: process
route taken by of getting through
packets from source single interchange
to dest.
 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

nterplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
 3rd important function in some network
architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25
 before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual
connection
 routers get involved
 network vs transport layer connection
service:
 network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
 transport: between two processes
Network Layer 4-7
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel”
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services example services for
for individual a flow of
datagrams: datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  in-order datagram
 guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40  guaranteed minimum
msec delay bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

 Network layer service
models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-10

Connection, connection-less
service
 datagram network provides network-
layer connectionless service
 virtual-circuit network provides network-
layer connection service
 analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-
oriented / connectionless transport-
layer services, but:
 service: host-to-host
 no choice: network provides one or
the other
 implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)

Network Layer 4-12

VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link
along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers
along path
 packet belonging to VC carries VC
number (rather than dest address)
 VC number can be changed on each
link.
 new VC number comes from forwarding
table

Network Layer 4-13

 VC forwarding table
12 22 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

C routers maintain connection state informatio

Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling
protocols
 used to setup, maintain teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet

application
6. receive data application
transport 5. data flow begins transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call
network
data link 1. initiate call 2. incoming call
data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end
connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host
address
application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-16

Datagram forwarding
table
4 billion IP
routing algorithm addresses, so rather
than list individual
local forwarding table
destination address
dest address output list range of
address-range 1 3 link
addresses
address-range 2 2 (aggregate table
address-range 3
address-range 4
2
1
entries)

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-17

 Datagram forwarding
table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-18
 Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry
for given destination address, use longest
address prefix that matches destination
address.
Destination Address Range Link interface
11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network:
why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
 data exchange among  evolved from
computers telephony
 “elastic” service, no  human conversation:
strict timing req.  strict timing, reliability
requirements
 many link types  need for guaranteed
 different characteristics service
 uniform service difficult  “dumb” end systems
 “smart” end systems  telephones
(computers)  complexity inside
 can adapt, perform network
control, error recovery
 simple inside
network, complexity
at “edge”

Network Layer 4-20

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-21

Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-22
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet  given datagram dest., lookup output
see chapter 5 port using forwarding table in input
port memory (“match plus action”)
 goal: complete input port processing
at ‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster
than forwarding rate into switch fabric

Network Layer 4-23

Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to
appropriate output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets
can be transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-24

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional
computers with switching under direct control of CPU
 packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-25

Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port
memory
to output port memory via
a shared bus
 bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus bus
bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access
and enterprise routers

Network Layer 4-26

Switching via interconnection
network
 overcome bus bandwidth
limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar,
other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect
processors in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-27

Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

 buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate
 scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission
Datagra
lost due t

Priority scheduling –4-28

Network Layer who
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-29

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection
• addressing conventions
• datagram format
• RIP, OSPF, BGP
network • packet handling conventions

layer forwarding
table
ICMP
protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-30

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP
typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app
or UDP segment)
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-31

 IP fragmentation,
reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-
level frame fragmentation:

…
 different link types, in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
 large IP datagram
divided (“fragmented”)
within net reassembly
 one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
 “reassembled” only
…
at final destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-32
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-33

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

router interface 223.1.1.2

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface:
connection between
host/router and 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27

physical link 223.1.2.2

 router’s typically have

multiple interfaces
 host typically has one 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
or two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet,
wireless 802.11)
 IP addresses 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
associated with each
interface 223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-34

 IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces
actually connected? 223.1.2.1

A: we’ll learn about 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-35

Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
 subnet part - high
order bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 host part - low
order bits 223.1.2.2
 what’s 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
a subnet ?
 device interfaces subnet
with same subnet
223.1.3.2
part of IP address 223.1.3.1
 can physically
reach each other
without intervening network consisting of 3 subnets
router

Network Layer 4-36

Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe 223.1.1.1

 to determine the
223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
subnets, detach 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

each interface 223.1.2.2

from its host or 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

router, creating subnet

islands of isolated
networks 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

 each isolated
network is called 223.1.3.0/24
a subnet
subnet mask: /24
Network Layer 4-37
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-38

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary
length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is #
bits in subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-39

IP addresses: how to get
one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-40

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-41

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-42

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCP server
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0out
transaction
there?ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
address you can use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
take that IPID:address!
transaction 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: 68
OK. You’ve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
gottransaction
that IPID:address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-43
DHCP: more than IP
addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated
IP address on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus
host portion of address)

Network Layer 4-44

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP first-hop router, addr of
DHCP Eth DNS server: use DHCP
Phy
DHCP  DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP 168.1.1.1
DHCP
DHCP UDP
Ethernet
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
 Ethernet frame
Phy server built into broadcast (dest:
router FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
 running DHCP
Ethernet server
demuxed to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP
 DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy
router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server

 encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded to client,
DHCP IP demuxing up to DHCP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP at client
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DSN server,
IP address of its first-
hop router

Network Layer 4-46

 DHCP:
Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
LAN) Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Message type: Boot Request (1)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-47

NAT: network address
translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving datagrams with source or

local destination in this network
network have same have 10.0.0/24 address for
single source NAT IP source, destination (as usual)
address:
138.76.29.7,different Network Layer 4-48
NAT: network address
translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside world is
concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP:
just one IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing
addresses of devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer 4-49
NAT: network address
translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port

#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP
address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair

 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new

port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in
NAT table
Network Layer 4-50
 NAT: network address
translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-51

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-52

ICMP: internet control message
protocol
 used by hosts & routers
to communicate Type Code description
network-level 0 0 echo reply (ping)
information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used 3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” 4 0 source quench (congestion
IP: control - not used)
 ICMP msgs carried in IP 8 0 echo request (ping)
datagrams 9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, 10 0 router discovery
code plus first 8 bytes 11 0 TTL expired
of IP datagram causing 12 0 bad IP header
error
Network Layer 4-53
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-54

Interplay between routing,
forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
local forwarding at this router
dest address output
address-range 1 3 link
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-55

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-56

 Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1, or
2
3
1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
1 2 or inversely related to
x 1
y
congestion

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

outing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-57

Routing algorithm
classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or
information?
dynamic?
global:
 all routers have complete static:
topology, link cost info  routes change slowly
 “link state” algorithms over time
decentralized: dynamic:
 router knows physically-  routes change more
connected neighbors, link quickly
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of
 periodic update
computation, exchange of  in response to link
info with neighbors cost changes
 “distance vector”
algorithms

Network Layer 4-58

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-59

A Link-State Routing
Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm notation:
 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if
 accomplished via “link not direct neighbors
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 D(v): current value
of cost of path from
 computes least cost source to dest. v
paths from one node
(‘source”) to all other
 p(v): predecessor
nodes node along path
 gives forwarding table from source to v
for that node  N': set of nodes
 iterative: after k whose least cost
iterations, know least path definitively
cost path to k dest.’s known

Network Layer 4-60

Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-61

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5 7
4
 construct shortest path
tree by tracing 8
predecessor nodes 3
u w y z
 ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily)
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-62
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-63

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-64
 Dijkstra’s algorithm,
discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
 e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried
traffic:

1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
1
C C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing….find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new cost
resulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-65
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-66

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic
programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to
y
then v

dx(y) = min {c(x,v) +neighbor

cost from dv(y) }v to destination
cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-67
 Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 2 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x 1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
ode achieving minimum is next
op in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-68
Distance vector algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to
y
 x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є
N]
 node x:
 knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 maintains its neighbors’ distance
vectors. For each neighbor v, x
maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-69

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its
own distance vector estimate to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the

estimate Dx(y) converge to the actual
least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-70

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, each node:
asynchronous:
each local iteration
caused by: wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
 local link cost change
 DV update message
from neighbor
recompute estimates
distributed:
 each node notifies
neighbors only when if DV to any dest has
its DV changes changed, notify neighbors
 neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary

Network Layer 4-71

 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-72
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7

from
y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-73
 Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes:
1
node detects local link cost y
change 4 1
 updates routing info, x z
50
recalculates
distance vector
 if DV changes, notify
neighbors
“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-74

Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 60
 node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
 bad news travels slow -
x z
50
“count to infinity” problem!
 44 iterations before
algorithm stabilizes: see text
poisoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to
X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

Network Layer 4-75

Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
message complexity robustness: what
 LS: with n nodes, E links, happens if router
O(nE) msgs sent malfunctions?
 DV: exchange between LS:
neighbors only
 node can advertise
 convergence time varies
incorrect link cost
 each node computes
speed of convergence only its own table
 LS: O(n2) algorithm
requires O(nE) msgs DV:
 may have oscillations  DV node can advertise
 DV: convergence time incorrect path cost
varies  each node’s table used
 may be routing loops by others
 count-to-infinity problem • error propagate thru
network

Network Layer 4-76

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and  link state
datagram networks  distance vector
 hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
  RIP
datagram format
  OSPF
IPv4 addressing
  BGP
ICMP
 IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-77

Intra-AS Routing
 also known as interior gateway
protocols (IGP)
 most common intra-AS routing
protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-78

 RIP ( Routing Information
Protocol)
 included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
 distance vector algorithm
 distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
 DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka
advertisement)
 each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing
sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-79
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-80
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-81
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements
(if tables changed)
 link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire
net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong
loops (infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-82

RIP table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by
application-level process called route-d
(daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-83

OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First)
 “open”: publicly available
 uses link state algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 topology map at each node
 route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per
neighbor
 advertisements flooded to entire AS
 carried in OSPF messages directly over IP
(rather than TCP or UDP
 IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to
OSPF
Network Layer 4-84
OSPF “advanced” features (not
in RIP)
 security: all OSPF messages authenticated
(to prevent malicious intrusion)
 multiple same-cost paths allowed (only
one path in RIP)
 for each link, multiple cost metrics for
different TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set
“low” for best effort ToS; high for real time
ToS)
 integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
 hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-85
Hierarchical
OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-86

Hierarchical
OSPF
 two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only
know direction (shortest path) to nets in
other areas.
 area border routers: “summarize” distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area
Border routers.
 backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-87

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto inter-domain routing protocol
 “glue that holds the Internet together”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
 eBGP: obtain subnet reachability
information from neighboring ASs.
 iBGP: propagate reachability information to
all AS-internal routers.
 determine “good” routes to other networks
based on reachability information and
policy.
 allows subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer 4-88
 BGP basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange
BGP messages:
 advertising paths to different destination network prefixes
(“path vector” protocol)
 exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections

 when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

 AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
 AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-89

BGP basics: distributing path
information
 using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends
prefix reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all
routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over
1b-to-2a eBGP session
 when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for
prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-90

Path attributes and BGP
routes
 advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router
to next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from
current AS to next-hop-AS)
 gateway router receiving route
advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline
 e.g., never route through AS x
 policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-91

BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than 1
route to destination AS, selects route
based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato
routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-92

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged between peers over
TCP connection
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws
old)
 KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence
of UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer 4-93

Putting it Altogether:
How Does an Entry Get
Into a Router’s Forwarding
Table?
 Answer is complicated!

 Ties together hierarchical routing

(Section 4.5.3) with BGP (4.6.3) and OSPF
(4.6.2).

 Provides nice overview of BGP!

How does entry get in forwarding
table?

routing algorithms

Assume prefix is
local forwarding table in another AS.
entry prefix output port
138.16.64/22 3
124.12/16 2
212/8 4
………….. …

Dest IP
1

3 2
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
High-level overview
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
2. Router determines output port for prefix
3. Router enters prefix-port in forwarding
table
Router becomes aware of
prefix
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

 BGP message contains “routes”

 “route” is a prefix and attributes: AS-PATH, NEXT-HOP,
…
 Example: route:
 Prefix:138.16.64/22 ; AS-PATH: AS3 AS131 ;

NEXT-HOP: 201.44.13.125
Router may receive multiple
routes
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

 Router may receive multiple routes for

same prefix
 Has to select one route