Data Communications: Basics

Financial Domain
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC mobile network
 billions of connected
server computing devices:
wireless

hosts = end systems global ISP
laptop 
running network apps
smartphone
home
network
regional ISP
wireless
 communication links
links • fiber, copper,
wired
links radio, satellite
• transmission rate:

bandwidth

 packet switches: forward

router packets (chunks of data) institutional
network
• routers and switches

Introduction 1-2
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts”
view
mobile network
 Internet: “network of
networks” global ISP
 Interconnected ISPs
 protocols control sending, home
network
receiving of messages regional ISP
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
802.11
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force
institutional
network
Introduction 1-3
 What’s the Internet: a service view
 infrastructure that mobile network

provides services to
global ISP
applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games, e-
commerce, social nets, … home
network
regional ISP
 provides programming
interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending
and receiving app programs
to “connect” to Internet

institutional
network
Introduction 1-4
Service Description
 Because applications run on end
systems, you are going to need to write
programs that run on the end systems.
 You might, for example, write your
programs in Java, C, or Python. Now,
because you are developing a
distributed Internet application, the
programs running on the different end
systems will need to send data to each
other.
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 Service Description
 End systems attached to the Internet
provide a socket interface that specifies
how a program running on one end system
asks the Internet infrastructure to deliver
data to a specific destination program
running on another end system. This
Internet socket interface is a set of rules
that the sending program must follow so
that the Internet can deliver the data to the
destination program.
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What’s a protocol?
human network protocols:
protocols:  machines rather than
humans
 “what’s the time?”
 all communication
 “I have a question”
activity in Internet
 introductions governed by protocols

… specific messages protocols define format,

sent order of messages sent
… specific actions and received among
taken when network entities, and
messages received, actions taken on message
or other events transmission, receipt
1-7
Protocol

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 A closer look at Internet
structure
mobile network
national or global ISP
Network edge:
hosts: clients and servers
servers often in data local or
regional

centers home network

ISP

content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network
 A closer look at Internet
structure
mobile network

national or global ISP

Network edge:
hosts: clients and servers
servers often in data centers local or
regional
ISP
Access networks, physical media: home network content

wired, wireless provider

network datacenter
network

communication links
enterprise
network
 A closer look at Internet
structure
mobile network

Network edge: national or global ISP

hosts: clients and servers

servers often in data centers
local or
Access networks, physical media: regional
ISP

wired, wireless communication home network content

provider
links network datacenter
network

Network core:
 interconnected routers
enterprise
 network of networks network
 Computer Networks
 Connected computers (wired or wireless) with the
purpose of transmitting, exchaning or sharing
data and resources.
 Hardware (Routers, Switches, Access Point,
Cables) and Software

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 In computer networking jargon, the computers
and other devices connected to the Internet are
often referred to as end systems.
 They are referred to as end systems because
they sit at the edge of the Internet.
 The Internet’s end systems include desktop
computers (e.g., desktop PCs, Macs, and Linux
boxes), servers (e.g., Web and e-mail servers),
and mobile devices (e.g., laptops, smartphones,
and tablets).
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 End systems are also referred to as
hosts because they host (that is,
run) application programs such as
a Web browser program, a Web
server program, an e-mail client
program, or an e-mail server
program

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Access networks and physical
media
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?

Introduction 1-15
Host: sends packets of data

two packets,
host sending function: L bits each
takes application

message
breaks into smaller 2 1

chunks, known as R: link transmission rate

packets, of length L bits host
transmits packet into

access network at
transmission rate R

Introduction 1-16
Host: sends packets of
data

Question: 3.5M files and transmission

rate = 56kbps. What is packet
transmission delay?

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BIT=> Binary Digit
 For Hardware:
 8 bit = 1B
 1000B = 1KB
 1000KB = 1MB
 For Software:
 8 bit = 1B
 1024B = 1KiB  kilobyte
 1024KiB = 1MiB  megabyte
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 The network core
mobile network
 mesh of national or global ISP

interconnected routers
 packet-switching: hosts

break application-layer local or

regional
messages into packets home network
ISP

content
 network forwards packets provider
network
from one router to the next,
datacenter
network

across links on path from

source to destination enterprise
network
 Packet-switching: store-
and-forward
L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R  L = 10 Kbits
bps  R = 100 Mbps
 store and forward: entire packet must arrive at  one-hop transmission
router before it can be transmitted on next link
delay = 0.1 msec
Store and Forward:
Reliability and error free
data delivery
1. Receiving the Packet: Store Phase
2. Error Checking
3. Routing Decision: Routing Table
4. Forwarding the Packet
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link
Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link

packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up

 Two key network-core
functions
routing algorithm Routing:
global action:
Forwarding: local forwarding table
 aka “switching” header output link determine source-
 local action: move
arriving packets
value
0100 3
0101 2 destination paths
from router’s input
0111
1001
2
1 taken by packets
link to appropriate
router output link routing algorithms

3 2
11
01

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Hub
 Connect all of your network devices
together on an internal network.
 Not intelligent.
 Broadcast the coming data to the every
port.
 It operates at the physical layer (Layer
1) of the OSI model.
 Security concerns and unnecassy traffic
on the network.
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Switch
 Very similar to hub.
 A device that has multiple ports that
accepts connections from network
devices.
 More intelligent!
 It operates at the data link layer (Layer
2) of the OSI model

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Key Points About MAC
Address Learning
 Dynamic Process: The switch learns MAC addresses
dynamically as it receives frames from devices.
 MAC Address Table: This table is periodically
updated as new frames are received or as entries age
out.
 Unicast Frames: When the switch knows the MAC
address, it forwards frames only to the correct port,
making the network more efficient.
 Broadcast Frames: If the switch doesn’t know the
destination MAC address, it floods the frame to all
ports, which can cause network congestion in large
networks.

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What is MAC adress
 A MAC address (Media Access Control
address) is a unique identifier assigned to a
network interface card (NIC) or
network device for communication on a
local network.
 At the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the
OSI model.
 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E :
 On Windows  «ipconfig /all»
 Physical Address=MAC Address
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Methods of
Communication in a
Network

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 Types of Network
 PAN: Personal Area Netwrok
 LAN : Local Area Network
 MAN: Metropolitan Area Network
 WAN: Wide Area Network

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PAN (Personal Area
Network)
 The smallest network type
 A small-scale network typically
used for personal devices within a
very limited area (a few meters).
 Wireless PAN: Bluetooth,..
 Wired PAN: USB, ..

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LAN (Local Area Network)
 a small type of network used in
houses, companies, schools or any
other small areas

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MAN: Metropolitan Area
Network
 Larger than LAN and smaller than
WAN
 Connecting multiple LANs in a
city or large campus.

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WAN (Wide Area)
 largest network type.
 covers large geographical areas.
 also connect other small and
medium networks like LANs and
MANs.

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Network Topologies
 Topology - Physical and logical
network layout –
 Physical – actual layout of the
computer cables and other network
devices –
 Logical – the way in which the
network appears to the devices that
use it.

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Network Topologies

 Point to Point Topology

 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree (Hierarchical) Topology
 Hybrit Topology
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Point to Point Topology
 Two hosts such as computer,
switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a
single piece of cable.

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 Bus Topology

 All devices share single communication line

or cable
 Both ends of the shared channel have line
terminator
 Require less cable
 Only one device can transmit data at a time,
leading to delays.
 CSMA/CD technology
 The bus cable is a single point of failure.
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 Star Topology

 All hosts are connected to central device.

(Hubs/Switch/Router)
 Devices cannot communicate directly with
each other, only through the central device.
 One of the most common network topologies
used in modern local area networks: Small to
Medium-Sized Networks
 Single point of failure: The central device is a
single point of failure.
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 Ring Topology

 Each host connects to two other hosts.

 The data travels through all intermediate
hosts.
 Single point of failure.
 Dual Ring Topology: Primary Ring,
Secondary Ring
 Token Ring technology are used to
implement a ring network.
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 Mesh Topology

 A host is connected to one or multiple

hosts.
 One of the key advantages of mesh
topology is its fault tolerance.
 Wiring is very complicated, Cabling cost is
high.
 In large data centers, mesh topology can be
used to ensure reliability and fault tolerance
between servers and storage devices.
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 Tree Topology

 This topology imitates as extended Star

topology.
 Combines characteristics of both star
topology and bus topology.
 Single Point of Failure: If the central
backbone or root node fails, the entire
network becomes inoperable.

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Hybrit Topology

 Combination of two or more

topologies
 Internet is the best example of
largest Hybrid topology.

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 Hybrid Topology
Combination
 Mesh-Star Hybrid:
• Example: In large data centers or
enterprise networks, core switches
may be arranged in a mesh topology
to ensure high availability, while each
individual office or department may
use star topology for local connectivity.

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