Concurrent Processes

• What is Parallel Processing?

Single Processor Configurations
• Typical Multiprocessing Configurations
• Process Synchronization Software
• Process Cooperation
• Concurrent Programming
Multiple Process Synchronization

Multiple Processor Programming

Understanding 1
Operating Systems
 What is Parallel Processing?

• Parallel processing (multiprocessing) -- 2+ processors

operate in unison.
– 2+ CPUs are executing instructions simultaneously.
– Each CPU can have a process in RUNNING state at same time.

• Processor Manager has to coordinate activity of each

processor and synchronize interaction among CPUs.

• Synchronization is key to system’s success because many

things can go wrong in a multiprocessing system.

Understanding 2
Operating Systems
 Development of Parallel Processing

• Major forces behind the development of multiprocessing:

– Enhance throughput
– Increase computing power.
• Primary benefits:
– increased reliability due to availability of 1+ CPU
– faster processing because instructions can be processed in parallel,
two or more at a time.
• Major challenges:
– How to connect the processors into configurations
– How to orchestrate their interaction

Understanding 3
Operating Systems
 Typical Multiprocessing Configurations

• Master/slave

• Loosely coupled

• Symmetric

Understanding 4
Operating Systems
 Master/Slave Multiprocessing
Configuration
• Asymmetric configuration.
• Single-processor system with
Slave
additional “slave” processors.
• Each slave, all files, all devices,
Main Master I/O
and memory managed by
Memory Processor Devices primary “master” processor.
• Master processor maintains
Slave
status of all processes in
system, performs storage
management activities,
schedules work for the other
processors, and executes all
control programs.
Understanding 5
Operating Systems
 Pros & Cons of Master/Slaves

• The primary advantage is its simplicity.

• Reliability is no higher than for a single processor system

because if master processor fails, entire system fails.
• Can lead to poor use of resources because if a slave
processor becomes free while master is busy, slave must
wait until the master can assign more work to it.
• Increases number of interrupts because all slaves must
interrupt master every time they need OS intervention
(e.g., I/O requests).
Understanding 6
Operating Systems
 Loosely Coupled Multiprocessing
Configuration
• Features several complete
computer systems, each with own
I/O
Main
Processor 1 Devices memory, I/O devices, CPU, & OS.
Memory 1
• Each processor controls own
I/O resources, maintains own
Main
Memory
Processor 2 Devices
2 commands & I/O management
tables.
Main
Processor 3
I/O
Devices
• Each processor can communicate
Memory
3
and cooperate with the others.
• Each processor must have “global”
tables indicating jobs each
processor has been allocated.

Understanding 7
Operating Systems
 Loosely Coupled - 2
• To keep system well-balanced & ensure best use of
resources, job scheduling is based on several requirements
and policies.
– E.g., new jobs might be assigned to the processor with lightest
load or best combination of output devices available.

• System isn’t prone to catastrophic system failures because

even when a single processor fails, others can continue to
work independently from it.

• Can be difficult to detect when a processor has failed.

Understanding 8
Operating Systems
Symmetric Multiprocessing Configuration

• Processor scheduling is
decentralized.
• A single copy of OS& a
global table listing each Processor 1
process and its status is Main I/O
stored in a common area Memory Processor 2
Devices

of memory so every Processor 3

processor has access to it.

• Each processor uses same
scheduling algorithm to
select which process it
will run next. 9
 Advantages of Symmetric over Loosely
Coupled Configurations
• More reliable.
• Uses resources effectively.
• Can balance loads well.
• Can degrade gracefully in the event of a failure.

• Most difficult to implement because processes must be

well synchronized to avoid problems of races and
deadlocks.

Understanding 10
Operating Systems
 Process Synchronization Software

• Success of process synchronization hinges on capability

of OS to make a resource unavailable to other processes
while it’s being used by one of them.
– E.g., I/O devices, a location in storage, or a data file.

• In essence, used resource must be locked away from other

processes until it is released.
• Only when it is released is a waiting process allowed to
use resource. A mistake could leave a job waiting
indefinitely.

Understanding 11
Operating Systems
 Synchronization Mechanisms

• Common element in all synchronization schemes is to

allow a process to finish work on a critical region of
program before other processes have access to it.
– Applicable both to multiprocessors and to 2+ processes in a single-
processor (time-shared) processing system.

• Called a critical region because its execution must be

handled as a unit.

Understanding 12
Operating Systems
 Lock-and-Key Synchronization

• Process first checks if key is available

• If it is available, process must pick it up and put it in lock
to make it unavailable to all other processes.

• For this scheme to work both actions must be performed in

a single machine cycle.

• Several locking mechanisms have been developed

including test-and-set, WAIT and SIGNAL, and
semaphores.
Understanding 13
Operating Systems
 Test-And-Set (TS) Locking

• Test-and-set is a single indivisible machine instruction

(TS).
• In a single machine cycle it tests to see if key is available
and, if it is, sets it to “unavailable.”
• Actual key is a single bit in a storage location that can
contain a zero (if it’s free) or a one (if busy).
• Simple procedure to implement.
• Works well for a small number of processes.

Understanding 14
Operating Systems
 Problems with Test-And-Set

• When many processes are waiting to enter a critical region,

starvation could occur because processes gain access in
an arbitrary fashion.
– Unless a first-come first-served policy were set up, some processes
could be favored over others.

• Waiting processes remain in unproductive, resource-

consuming wait loops (busy waiting).
– Consumes valuable processor time.
– Relies on the competing processes to test key.

Understanding 15
Operating Systems
 WAIT and SIGNAL Locking

• Modification of test-and-set.

• Adds 2 new operations, which are mutually exclusive and

become part of the process scheduler’s set of operations
– WAIT
– SIGNAL

• Operations WAIT and SIGNAL frees processes from “busy

waiting” dilemma and returns control to OS which can
then run other jobs while waiting processes are idle.

Understanding 16
Operating Systems
 WAIT

• Activated when process encounters a busy condition code.

• Sets process control block (PCB) to the blocked state

• Links it to the queue of processes waiting to enter this

particular critical region.

• Process Scheduler then selects another process for

execution.

Understanding 17
Operating Systems
 SIGNAL

• Activated when a process exits the critical region and the

condition code is set to “free.”

• Checks queue of processes waiting to enter this critical

region and selects one, setting it to the READY state.

• Process Scheduler selects this process for running.

Understanding 18
Operating Systems
 Semaphores

• Semaphore -- nonnegative integer variable used as a flag.

• Signals if & when a resource is free & can be used by a
process.
• Most well-known semaphores are signaling devices used
by railroads to indicate if a section of track is clear.
• Dijkstra (1965) -- 2 operations to operate semaphore to
overcome the process synchronization problem.
– P stands for the Dutch word proberen (to test)
– V stands for verhogen (to increment)

Understanding 19
Operating Systems
 P (Test) and V (Increment)

• If we let s be a semaphore variable, then the V operation

on s is simply to increment s by 1.
V(s): s: = s + 1

• Operation P on s is to test value of s and, if it’s not zero, to

decrement it by one.
P(s): If s > 0 then s: = s – 1

• P and V are executed by OS in response to calls issued by

any one process naming a semaphore as parameter.
Understanding 20
Operating Systems
 MUTual EXclusion (Mutex)

• P and V operations on semaphore s enforce concept of

mutual exclusion, which is necessary to avoid having 2
operations attempt to execute at same time.

• Called mutex ( MUTual EXclusion)

P(mutex): if mutex > 0 then mutex: = mutex – 1

V(mutex): mutex: = mutex + 1

Understanding 21
Operating Systems
 Process Cooperation

• Occasions when several processes work directly together

to complete a common task.

• Two famous examples are problems of “producers and

consumers” and “readers and writers.”

• Each case requires both mutual exclusion and

synchronization, and they are implemented by using
semaphores.

Understanding 22
Operating Systems
Producers and Consumers : One Process Produces
Some Data That Another Process Consumes Later.

Buffer
Producer Consumer

Buffer
Producer Consumer

Buffer
Producer Consumer

Understanding 23
Operating Systems
 Producers and Consumers - 2

• Because buffer holds finite amount of data, synchronization

process must delay producer from generating more data
when buffer is full.

• Delay consumer from retrieving data when buffer is empty.

• This task can be implemented by 3 semaphores:

– Indicate number of full positions in buffer.
– Indicate number of empty positions in buffer.
– Mutex, will ensure mutual exclusion between processes

Understanding 24
Operating Systems
 Definitions of Producer &
Consumer Processes
Producer Consumer

produce data P (full)

P (empty) P (mutex)

P (mutex) read data from buffer

write data into buffer V (mutex)

V (mutex) V (empty)

V (full) consume data

Understanding 25
Operating Systems
 Definitions of Variables and Functions
Used in Producers and Consumers

Given: Full, Empty, Mutex defined as semaphores

n: maximum number of positions in the buffer

V (x): x: = x + 1 (x is any variable defined as a semaphore)

P (x): if x > 0 then x: = x – 1

mutex = 1 means the process is allowed to enter critical region

Understanding 26
Operating Systems
 Producers and Consumers Algorithm

empty:= n
full:= 0
mutex:= 1
COBEGIN
repeat until no more data PRODUCER
repeat until buffer is empty CONSUMER
COEND

Understanding 27
Operating Systems
 Readers and Writers

• Readers and writers -- arises when 2 types of processes

need to access a shared resource such as a file or database.
– E.g., airline reservations systems.

• Two solutions using P and V operations:

1. Give priority to readers over writers so readers are kept
waiting only if a writer is actually modifying the data.

• However, this policy results in writer starvation if there is

a continuous stream of readers.

Understanding 28
Operating Systems
 Reader & Writer Solutions
Using P and V Operations
2. Give priority to the writers.
• In this case, as soon as a writer arrives, any readers that are
already active are allowed to finish processing, but all
additional readers are put on hold until the writer is done.
• Obviously this policy results in reader starvation if a
continuous stream of writers is present

Understanding 29
Operating Systems
State of System Summarized By 4 Counters

• Number of readers who have requested a resource and

haven’t yet released it (R1=0);
• Number of readers who are using a resource and haven’t
yet released it (R2=0);
• Number of writers who have requested a resource and
haven’t yet released it (W1=0);
• Number of writers who are using a resource and haven’t
yet released it (W2=0).

• Implemented using 2 semaphores to ensure mutual

exclusion between readers and writers.
30
 Concurrent Programming

• Concurrent processing system -- one job uses several

processors to execute sets of instructions in parallel.
– Requires a programming language and a computer system that can
support this type of construct.
• Increases computation speed.
• Increases complexity of programming language and
hardware (machinery & communication among machines).
• Reduces complexity of working with array operations
within loops, of performing matrix multiplication, of
conducting parallel searches in databases, and of sorting or
merging files.
Understanding 31
Operating Systems
 Explicit & Implicit Parallelism

• Explicit parallelism -- programmer must explicitly state

which instructions can be executed in parallel.

• Implicit parallelism -- automatic detection by compiler of

instructions that can be performed in parallel.

Understanding 32
Operating Systems
 Ada

• In early 1970s DoD commissioned a programming

language that could perform concurrent processing.
• Named after Augusta Ada Byron (1815-1852), a skilled
mathematician & world’s first programmer for work on
Analytical Engine.
• Designed to be modular so several programmers can work
on sections of a large project independently of one another.
· Specification part, which has all information that must be visible
to other units (argument list)
· Body part made up of implementation details that don’t need to be
visible to other units.
Understanding 33
Operating Systems
 Terminology

• multiprocessing
Ada
• busy waiting
mutex
• COBEGIN
P
• COENDprocessing
parallel
• concurrent
process synchronization
processing
• concurrentand
producers programming
consumers
• critical region
readers and writers
• embedded computer systems
semaphore
• explicit parallelism
symmetric configuration
• implicit parallelism
test-and-set
• loosely coupled configuration
V
• master/slave
WAIT and SIGNAL
configuration
34