Computers

and
Programming
Definition of a Computer
A machine that given instructions and can
manipulate data by itself.
Basic Computer Needs :
o Need to perform calculations faster and more
accurately
o Need to control processes consistently
o Need to handle larger and larger amounts of
data
Computer System
A computer system contains two parts
hardware: actual pieces of equipment
 keyboards, screens, components inside the boxes,
printers, modems, etc.
software: instructions that direct hardware
 operating systems, compilers, applications
Hardware
Access to data
Read: fetching information from somewhere
Write: putting information somewhere
Common hardware components
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Main Memory
Secondary Storage
Input & Output (I/O)
CPU
CPU is the heart of any computer
Three functions
control: CPU takes on instruction at a time and
follows it to direct the rest of the system
arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division
logical operations: comparisons
Main Memory
Main memory is a temporary, working
storage area
Stores two types of things
current set of instructions the CPU is following
data these instructions manipulate
Made up locations with unique addresses
Addresses allow random access of data
Very fast, but expensive and volatile
Secondary Storage
Permanent storage device
Disks, hard and floppy, are common examples
Relatively cheap, but slow (can be hundreds
of times slower than Main Memory)
Accessed in blocks (many characters at a
time)
I/O Devices
Provide a way for humans to communicate
with computers
Common input devices
Keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.
Common output devices
Monitor, printer
Software
Legal definition of computer software as used
in the U.S Copyright Act of 1980
“a set of statements or instructions to be used
directly or indirectly in a computer in order to
bring about a certain result.”
A set of instructions is commonly called a
program
 Software Categories
Software
Software

System
System Application
Application
Software
Software Software
Software

Operating Device Productivity Business Entertainment Education

Operating Device Utilities Productivity Business Entertainment Education
Systems Drivers Utilities Software Software Software Software
Systems Drivers Software Software Software Software

MS-DOS OS/2 Windows Macintosh UNIX

MS-DOS OS/2 Windows Macintosh UNIX
System Software
System software provides services for all of
the users of the computer system
System software has two main objectives:
Deliver hardware’s resources in a relatively
simple manner
Provide compatibility between different
hardware configurations (portability)
Operating System
Usually works
behind the scenes Applications
Applications
Controls I/O,
allocates system
resources, manages
storage space, Operating
OperatingSystem
System
maintains security,
and detects
equipment failures
Hardware
Hardware
Application Software
The software most users are familiar with.
Word processors, spreadsheets, databases,
games, web browsers, etc.
All of the programs you write for this class
will be application software
Data Storage Units
Binary Digit (Bit)
A single symbol in a binary number
The binary number 11001110 has eight bits
Byte
A group of bits (usually eight)
Smallest unit of data usable
Word
Bits a computer can process simultaneously
Computer Languages
CPUs don’t understand natural languages
nor many programming languages
Each computer has some built-in language
to which other languages must be
translated
Three levels of languages:
Machine Language
Assembly Language
High-level Languages
Machine Language
Built-in language of the computer
Native language of the CPU
Expressed in binary form
An instruction might be 0111010110110011
Lowest level of computer languages
You can write highly efficient code
Very difficult to use
Assembly Language
Second level of languages
An assembler translates assembly-
language instructions into machine
language
Really just symbolic machine languages
0111010110110011 becomes ADD
Uses CPU’s instruction set
Code can be very efficient
Takes a long time to write programs
High-Level Languages
Meant to be easy for humans to use
Similar to natural languages
One HLL instructions translates into many
machine-language instructions
Strict vocabulary and syntax essential for the
computer to understand
Not as efficient as low-level languages
Software Development
Write
Write Source
Source
Source
SourceCode
Code File
File

Object
Object
Compile
Compile File
File
Errors
Executable
Executable
Link
Link File
File
Errors

Test
Test
Errors
Modular Design
Large projects can be very difficult to
envision and implement
Breaking these into smaller tasks is called
modular design
Start with a single broad statement and work
in layers towards detailed descriptions of
small parts of the problem
This process is called top-down design
Modular Design
Student
Student
Portal
Portal

Finance
FinanceServices
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eLibrary E-mail
E-mail LMS
LMS Examination
Examination

CIW306
CIW306 CKM313
CKM313 CCP203
CCP203
Modular Design Advantages
Separate tasks means that different people
(or computers) can work at the same time.
Modules are often reusable.
It is often easier to maintain many small
modules than one large product.
Terminologies
Program – set of instructions.
Programming – process of writing
instructions in understandable language by
computer and programmers.
Programming Language – set of
instructions that can be used to construct a
program.
Programming Language
FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, C,
etc
So many? – there are vast differences in
types of input data, calculations needed,
and output required by applications.

FORTRAN – scientific & engineering purposes.

COBOL – business applications
BASIC, PASCAL, C – general programming
languages.
Algorithms
Algorithm – step-by-step sequence of
instructions that describes how to perform a
computation.
Eg: Assume that a program must calculate
the average of three numbers.
Algorithm (processing steps) for the above
problem can be described into:- pseudocode
and flowcharts.
Pseudocode – English like phrases.
Flowcharts – pictorial representation, use
the standard defined symbols.
Pseudocode
No standard rules for constructing
pseudocode – any short English phrase may
be used.

Solution for the problem in pseudocode:

Input the three numbers into the computer
Calculate the average by adding the numbers
and dividing the sum by three
Display the average
 Flowchart
SYMBOL NAME DESCRIPTION
Start
Terminal Indicates the beginning
or end of an algorithm

Indicates an input or
Input Input/Output output operation
three
values
Indicates computation or
Process data manipulation

Calculate Connects the flowcharts

the Flow lines symbols and indicates the
average logic flow

Indicates a decision point

Decision in an algorithm
Display
the
average
Indicates an entry to or
Connector exit from another part of
the flowchart

End
 Program Translation

Coding an algorithm

Translate the
Select an algorithm algorithm into C
Requirements
(step-by-step language
procedure) (coding)

Source programs must be translated

C language Machine
source Translation language
program program program
Programming Process
Writing a program that performs the given
task is not always enough.
Good programmers should keep in mind
several objectives when writing code.
Often programmers have to make sacrifices
in one objective to reach acceptable levels in
another.
Programming Objectives
Execution efficiency
Will the program execute in a reasonable time?
Programming efficiency
How long will you spend creating the program?
Maintainability
How easy is it to change the program later?
Reusability
Can the code be used elsewhere easily?
Introduction
The ideal in programming – to efficiently
produce readable, error-free programs that
work correctly and can be modified or
changed with minimum testing required for
reverification.
Compile-Time and Run-Time Errors
 Detection of errors:
1. Before a program is compiled
2. While the program is being compiled
3. While it is being run
4. After the program has been executed and the
output is being examined
5. Not at all
Compile-Time and Run-Time Errors
Compile-time Errors :- Errors detected by
compiler.
Run-time Errors :– Errors occur while
program is running.
Desk checking :– Method for detecting
errors before a program is compiled.
Program Verification and Testing :–
Method for detecting errors after a program
has been executed.
Syntax and Logic Errors
A syntax error – an error in the structure or
spelling of a statement.
Logic errors – erroneous, unexpected, or
unintentional errors resulting from a flaw in
the program’s logic.
Logic errors more difficult to detect
compared to syntax errors.
Syntax and Logic Errors
Generally, logic errors are include:
 No output – caused of omission printf()
statement, or a sequence of statements that
inadvertently bypasses a printf() function call
 Unappealing or misaligned output – caused
of printf() statements.
 Incorrect numerical results – caused of
incorrect values being assigned, incorrect
arithmetic operations, omission of statements,
improper sequence of statements, or a roundoff
error.
Testing and Debugging
In theory, a comprehensive set of test runs
will reveal all logic errors and ensure that a
program will work correctly for any and all
combinations of input and computed data.
In practice, this requires checking all
possible combinations of statements
execution (for a simple program).
Testing and Debugging
Remember in testing phase:
 Although a single test can reveal the presence
of an error, it does not verify the absence of
one.
 The fact that one test reveals no errors does
not indicate that there are no errors.
Testing and Debugging
Debugging – the process of isolating,
correcting, and verifying the correction of
a program.
Techniques of debugging;
 Desk checking before write and compile
programs – check pseudocode/flowchart
 Program tracing
 Diagnostic using printf() function calls to
display selected variables or all input data.
 Using debugger
 Use your ability to debug the errors