MODULE 3

 INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS AND
APPLICATION IN
POWER SYSTEMS

 ENERGY METERS AND

METERING
3.0 INSTRUMENT
TRANSFORMERS
Transformer can be used in
electrical instrumentation sys-
tems. Due to transformers
'ability to step up or step down
voltage and current, and the
electrical isolation they
provide, they can serve as a
way of connecting electrical
instrumentation to high
voltage, high current power
systems. Instrument trans-
formers are used for measur-
ing voltage and current in
electrical power systems, and
for power system protection
and control.
 Advantages of Instrument
Transformers in Power Sys-
tem
1.The secondary is wound for low
voltage, which simplifies the insula-
tion in the measuring instrument
and make it safe to handle.
2. The instrument transformer isolate
the measuring instrument from the
main circuit.
3. The point in the secondary is al-
ways earthed so that the secondary
circuit and the instrument are al-
ways kept at low potential, even
when measuring high voltage.
4. The measuring instrument can
be connected by long leads to
the transformer and can be
placed in the most convenient
position for reading.
5. The secondary voltage or
current can be standardized
(usually 110V for potential
transformers or 5A for cur-
rent transformers), which
simplifies instrument changes
3.1 Voltage or Potential
Transformer (VT or PT)
Voltage transformers (VTs)
also referred to as “Potential
transformers” (PTs), are de-
signed to have an accurate
known transformation ratio in
both magnitude and phase,
over a range of measuring
circuit impedance. That is PTs
are designed to provide as
accurate a voltage step down
ratio as possible. To aid in the
precise voltage regulation,
loading is kept to a minimum;
the voltmeter is made to have
high input impedance so as
to draw as little current from
the PT as possible.
The potential transformers
are employed for voltages
above 380 V to feed the po-
tential coils of indicating and
metering instruments (volt-
meters, wattmeter, watt-hour
meters) and relays. In order
word, the low secondary
voltage allows the protective
relay equipment and measur-
ing instruments to be oper-
ated at a lower voltages.
The diagram below shows the
connection of the voltmeter
with a potential transformer
From above figure, the
primary winding of the poten-
tial transformer is connected
to the high voltage main-bus-
bars and to the secondary
winding, the indicating volt-
meter is connected. The
voltmeter reads a precise
fraction or ratio, of the actual
system voltage, its scale set
to read as though it were
measuring the voltage dir-
ectly.
In this way, the transformer keeps
the instrument voltage at a safe level
and electrically isolates it from the
power system; so there is no con-
nection between the high voltage
source and the instrument or instru-
ment wiring.
NOTE:
(i) The ratio of the number of turns in
the secondary coil to the number of
turns in the primary coil of the trans-
former is known as turn or trans-
formation ratio.
(ii) The burden of an instrument
transformer is the value of the im-
pedance of the secondary circuit ex-
pressed in ohms (or in volt-ampere
at the rated current) at the relevant
power factor.
3.2 Current Transformers
(CTs)
A current transformer (CT) is a
transformer designed to provide
current in its secondary coil pro-
portional to the current flowing in
its primary coil. These instrument
transformers are connected in ac
power circuits to feed the current
coils of indicating and metering
instruments ( ammeters, watt-
meters, watt-hour meters) and
protective relays. The primary of
such a transformer would be con-
nected in series with the power
circuit (the circuit in which current
is to be measured) as shown be-
low
Instrument application: the
“current transformer” steps
high current down to a value
applicable to conventional
ammeter.
Note that while the PT is a
step-down device, the cur-
rent transformer (or CT) is a
step-up device (with respect
to voltage), which is what is
needed to step down the
power line current.
3.2.1 Precautions to be
taken while using CT
Because current transformers
(CTs) are designed to be power-
ing ammeters, which are low-
impedance loads, and they are
wound as voltage step-up trans-
formers, they should NEVER,
EVER be operated with an
open-circuited secondary wind-
ing. FAILURE to heed this warn-
ing will result in the CT providing
extremely high secondary
voltages, dangerous to equip-
ment and personnel alike.
Thus, the secondary should be
operated with the ammeter or
the current coil of a wattmeter or
watt-hour meter or a relay in
place or short-circuited.
To facilitate maintenance of
ammeter instrumentation, short-
circuiting switches are often in-
stalled in parallel with the CT’s
secondary winding, to be closed
whenever the ammeter is re-
moved for service.
The Short-circuit will allow am-
meter to be removed from an
active current transformer
circuit.
3.3 Error in Current or
Potential Transformer
The current transformer (CT) over-
comes the power loss and circuit
isolation problems of the current
shunt, but like potential transformer
(PT), introduces ratio and phase dis-
placement errors.
The phase angle of the secondary
load on potential transformer will
normally be very small since a volt-
meter is predominantly resistive.
However, should an inductive load
be applied to a PT, the ratio error will
be increased and the phase dis-
placement, which is normally negat-
ive, may be positive.
The current error (ratio error)
and phase displacement for
a current transformer given
as the difference in mag-
nitude between the primary
current Ip and the secondary
current multiplied by rated
transformation ratio (IsKn), is
dependent on the amount of
the primary current used to
energise the core and this
must therefore be kept to a
minimum.
The British standard spe-
cification relating to current
transformers defined
current error (ratio error) as

where
Kn is the rated transformation ra-
tio,
Is is the secondary current and
Ip the primary current.
Also, transformation ratio Kn is
given as

Kn = n +
n = turns ratio

Im = magnetising
component of exciting
current
Ie = loss component of
exciting current
Is = secondary winding
current
 = angle between
secondary winding
Im =

Ie =

Ep = primary induced
voltage
Es = secondary induced
voltage

Phase angle error,  =

Kn in term of no load cur-
rent, Io is given by
Kn = n +

where  is the phase

angle at no load current
Io.
ϕs = total impedance
angle of the secondary
winding
Is = secondary current
Measurement of Power
on High Voltage
Power measurements are made
in high voltage circuits by con-
necting the wattmeter to the
Circuit through current and po-
tential transformers. The pri-
mary winding of the CT is con-
nected in series with the load
and the secondary winding is
connected in series with an am-
meter and the current coil of a
wattmeter.
The primary winding of the
potential transformer is
connected across the supply
lines and a voltmeter, and
the potential coil circuit of
the wattmeter are con-
nected in parallel with the
secondary winding of the
transformer. One secondary
terminal of transformer and
the casings are earthed.
3.4 Energy Meter and
Metering

3.4.1 The Dynamometer

Wattmeter
Wattmeter is an instrument
which is used to measure the
power developed in a circuit
across a load.
The dynamometer wattmeter
is essentially a moving-coil in-
strument in which the main
magnetic field is produced by
two fixed coils’
It consist of two coils which are:
1.Fixed coil (current coil)
2. Moving coil (Pressure coil)

The fixed coil is connected in

series with the load and carry the
current in the circuit. Therefore it
is called the current coil of
wattmeter.

The moving coil is connected

across the load, so that the cur-
rent proportional to the voltage
drop can flow through the coil.
Since the current proportional to
the voltage is flowing through it, it
is also called voltage coil of pres-
sure coil.

The moving coil rotates within the

fixed coils, being pivoted centrally
between them, and is controlled
by a spring.

The main field is produced by the

current in the fixed coils and is
proportional to it.
The force rotating the moving
coil is proportional to its cur-
rent and the field strength,
which is proportional to the
fixed –coil current. Thus the
deflection is proportional to
the product of the two cur-
rents and if the current in the
moving coil depends upon
the p.d of the circuit the de-
flection will be proportional to
V X I = power in watts.
Any change of direction of
current in the circuit affects
both coils, and the direction
of deflection remain unalterd.
Thus, the voltmeter can be
used on both a.c and d.c cir-
cuits. On a.c., the deflection
will be the average value of
the product of instantaneous
values of current and
voltage. This means that the
wattmeter measures the true
or active power in the circuit,
that is, the deflection is pro-
portional to Vicosɸ. Figure
below shows the coil ar-
rangement when using the
instrument as a wattmeter.
Advantages of Dy-
namometer wattmeter

• It can measure both AC

and DC parameter
• It is free from hysteresis
error
• Magnetic can be varied
and there is no change of
magnetic field loss like in
case of PMMC type instru-
ment.
Disadvantages of Dy-
namometer wattmeter

• It has low sensitivity

• There is more frictional
loss due to heavy moving
parts.
• Scale is non uniform
3.4.2 The Induction –
Type Energy Meter
The dynamometer wattmeter
is very similar to the induction
energy meter both in con-
struction and operation..

The figure below shows an

induction type instrument
which can be used only for
the measurement of AC
quantities.
It can be used as ammeter,
voltmeter, wattmeter or en-
ergy meter.
Like the electrodynamics'
instruments considered
earlier , it is a moving coil
instrument in which the
main magnetic field is
produced by two fixed
coils.
The induction type energy
meter is made of two
magnetic system.
The top magnet is a 3-
limb construction with a
very small air-gap, making
the coil highly inductive
with a current lagging al-
most 900 behind voltage.
The lower two limb mag-
net has a large airgap so
that the current and the
voltage are almost in
phase.
Induction Type Energy
Meter
Between the magnets is a
pivoted Aluminum disc. When
a.c is supplied to the two
coils, the potential (upper)
magnet will produce an alter-
nating flux v which will pro-
duce eddy current in the disc
at a point opposite the lower
magnet poles. As indicated
earlier the construction of the
magnet makes a phase dif-
ference of about 900 between
the currents in the voltage
coils and the current coils. On
a similar note, a 900 phase
shift will occur between the
eddy
produced by the fluxes v and
i. Therefore, the defecting
torque T is produced on the
metal disc due to the phase
difference in v and i.

Hence, the torque on the disc

is proportional to the product
of the currents and the phase
displacement.
Txi
Since the current in the volt-
age coil is proportional to its
voltage then,
TVI cos which is the
power in the circuit
If a control spring is attached
to the disc the displacement
becomes a measure of the
power. This is a watt-meter.

However a braking magnet is

used instead of a spring
which makes the disc to ro-
tate at a speed proportional
to the power in watts.
Since energy is power x time
E = p x t, the no of rev-
olutions of the disc in a given
period of time is the measure
of the energy.
3.5 Energy Meters
• Measurement of power in
a single – phase cct

In a single -  a.c cct the prod-

uct of the ammeter and the
voltmeter readings gives the
apparent power or the volt-am-
peres which does not take
power factor to consideration.
Therefore a watt-meter is
absolutely necessary to in-
dicate the actual power in
watts. For a d.c. circuit the
products of the current and
the voltage gives the d.c.
power in watts.
For the above cct, the
mode of connection of the
wattmeter shown where ML
is the current coil and MT is
the voltage coil. Wattmeter
reading equals actual
power in watts.
 P = VI cos (watts)
But V x A = VI = volt – ampere
From the instrument readings
it is then possible to evaluate
for the power factor i.e.
cos  = P = P
VI S
Reactive power
Q = VI sin 
Where P2 + Q2 = S2
 3.5.1 Measurement of
power in three-phase
circuit
1. One-wattmeter method.
This method is used to measure
power in a three-phase with a
neutral circuit when the load is
balanced.
In the figure shown below the
Wattmeter indicates the power in
one phase only and since the
Load is balanced
Total power = 3 x wattmeter
Reading. *** Diagram***
If the three-phase is not with
a neutral, the potential coil of
the wattmeter is connected
between lines with a switch
S in circuit so that connection
can be made to both lines in
turn as shown in figure below.
*** Diagram****
The potential across the
wattmeter coil will be 1.73
times the phase voltage and
will have a 30o phase shift. two
readings are taken, first with S
On position (1) then with S on
position (2). The total three-
phase power is the sum of
these two readings.
Total power = P1 + P2

2. Two-wattmeter method.
This is the most commonly
used method for measuring
power in a three-phase
system, since it can be used
For both balanced and
Unbalanced, star or  loads.
The current coil of the wattmeter
carry the current in two lines,
and the potential coils are
connected across to the third
line, as shown in figure below:
The phasor diagram for a
balanced load is also shown.
*** Diagrams****
The current in wattmeter W1 is
IR and the potential is VRY. In
W2 the current is IB and the
potential is VBY The phasor
leads VR by 30o and VBY
lags 30o behind VB. If the
load power factor is cosɸ
Lagging, then the phase-angle
between the current and
voltage in W1 is 30o + ɸ and in
W2 is 30o - ɸ.
Therefore, W1 measures
VRYIRcos(30o+ɸ) = P1
W2 measures VBYIBcos(30o- ɸ)
= P1
For balanced conditions
VRY = VBY = V
IR = IB = I
Therefore,
W1 + W2 = 1.73VIcosɸ
This is the equation for power in a
Three-phase circuit. So total
power is given by the sum of the
wattmeter readings. This is also
true if the load is unbalanced and
there is no fourth wire in the
system.