Chapter 7: Analytic Solution of

Linear Dynamic Systems

• So far, we have covered the following topics:
– Modeling dynamic systems
– Standard forms for systems (SSR, TFs, etc)s

• Next, we will determine the dynamic response of linear systems using analytical techniques (i.e., the
total solution of linear ODEs)
– In particular, we will investigate the analytical system response to “standard” inputs such as the step, ramp,
and impulse

• We will focus on solving “simple” systems (1st- and 2nd-order ODEs) “by hand” using analytic methods

• Finally, we will establish performance criteria for system response

– Time to reach steady state
– Overshoot and damping, etc
 Goals of Linear System Analysis

• System designers should understand the basic parameters governing 1st- and 2nd-order
system response
– How does the “resistance” parameter effect time to reach the steady-state response?

– How does the “stiffness” parameter effect oscillation frequency?

• Often the response of a complex, nonlinear model “looks like” a standard 1 st- or 2nd-order
response, and therefore the complex system can be approximated and replaced by a
reduced-order model
– System designers can trade-off model complexity vs. model accuracy, as well as obtain a physical,
intuitive feel for dynamic system response
 Complete solution

Complete solution of ODEs

a2 y  a1 y  a0 y u (t )

Homogenous solution Particular solution

a2 y  a1 y  a0 y 0 y P (t )
Related to input u(t)
y H (t )

Complete solution
 7.2 Analytical Solutions to
Linear Differential Equations
• As an example, consider the 2nd-order I/O equation (ODE)

2 y  12 y  16 y 3u (t )

• The total solution y(t) is comprised of two parts: the homogeneous (or natural) solution
yH(t) and the particular (or forced) solution yP(t)

y (t )  y H (t )  y P (t ) Total solution

• Homogeneous solution: the solution to the homogeneous ODE, where the input u(t) is
zero. Therefore, the homogeneous solution is the natural response, and is strictly due to
the “natural dynamics”.
 Homogeneous Solution
• Homogeneous solution: the solution to the homogeneous ODE, where the input u(t) is
zero
• Therefore, solve the unforced ODE with zero input:
Complete solution
2 y  12 y  16 y 0
y (t )  y H (t )  y P (t )
• Assume an exponential solution form for yH(t)
y H (t ) ce rt
• Therefore, y H cre rt and y H cr 2 e rt

2 rt rt
2cr e  12cre  16ce 0 rt
2r 2
 12r  16ce rt 0

Because cert cannot be zero for all time t, the bracket term must = 0
 Characteristic Equation
• The Characteristic Equation is the bracket term set to zero:

2r 2  12r  16 0
• The characteristic roots (r1 = -2 and r2 = -4 in this case) give us the complimentary
solution:

• Finally, the homogeneous solution is

 2t  4t Note: in this case, yH(t) decays to zero

y H (t ) c1e  c2 e as time t  infinity (steady-state)

The constants c1 and c2 are determined from the two initial conditions (ICs) after the
particular response has been determined

y (0)  y0 and y (0)  y 0

 Particular Solution (Forced Response)
• Particular solution: the solution to the ODE with a non-zero right-hand side
forcing function (input). Undetermined method.

• The particular solution is usually found by guessing a functional form, which is

typically related to the input function u(t)

• For example, if a linear system is driven by a sinusoidal forcing function

u(t ) sin 4t , then the forced
response will also be a sinusoidal function but with a different amplitude
and/or phase angle with respect to the input function, i.e.,
y P (t )  A sin 4t   
 Solving an LTI System:
Example 7.1
• Given the following first-order linear ODE with initial condition y(0) = 3

4 y  8 y 6

determine the complete (total) response

(worked on the board )

 Solving an LTI System: Example 7.2

• Given the following second-order linear ODE with initial conditions

y(0) = 2 and y (0)  1

2 y  8 y  6 y 10 sin 4t

determine the complete (total) response

2 
y  8 y  6 y 0 For Homogenous solution with zero input.

2r 2  8r  6 0 Roots of Ch. Eq. (r1  1, r2  3)

yH c1e  t  c2 e  3t Homogenous Solution.

 Solving an LTI System: Example 7.2
For particular Solution, output guess based on input.

yP a sin 4t  b cos 4t
Need to find the constant a and b

y P 4a cos 4t  4b sin 4t yP  16a sin 4t  16b cos 4t

2 y  8 y  6 y 10sin 4t Original ODE

Substitute the solution guess and derivative in original ODE

2( 16a sin 4t  16b cos 4t )  8(4a cos 4t  4b sin 4t )  6(a sin 4t  b cos 4t ) 10 sin 4t
 Solving an LTI System: Example 7.2
( 32b  32a  6b) cos 4t  (  32a  32b  6a) sin 4t 0 cos 4t  10 sin 4t

Comparing the sin and cosine terms

 32b  32a  6b 0
Roots (a  0.1529, b  0.1882)
 32a  32b  6a 10

substitute the calculated values of a and b in particular solution, we have

yP  0.153sin 4t  0.188cos 4t

y(t )  yH  yP Complete/total solution

Last step: Find the coef.
y(t ) c1e  t  c2 e  3t  0.15sin 4t  0.188cos 4t c1 and c2, based on initial
conditions.
 Solving an LTI System: Example 7.2

t  3t y(0) = 2
y(t ) c1e  c2 e  0.15sin 4t  0.188cos 4t Complete solution
y (0)  1
y( 0 ) c1e  0  c2 e  3( 0)  0.15sin 4(0)  0.188cos 4(0) Initial conditions

2 c1  c2  0.188 A

y (t )  c1e  t  3c2e  3t  0.612 cos 4t  0.7529sin 4t Solving Eq. A and B.

 1 c1  3c2  0.6118 B (c1 3.088, c2  .9)

y(t ) 3.088e  t  0.9e  3t  0.15sin 4t  0.188cos 4t

Transient response Steady state response

 The Complete Response
• Transient response: part of the total response that goes to zero as time t  infinity (or, the
initial part of the dynamic response that eventually “dies out”)

• Steady-state response: part of the total response that remains as time t  infinity

Transient Steady-state
response response

Complete response = Transient + Steady-state responses

 Characteristic Roots and the Transfer Function

• We have seen that the homogeneous or free response yH(t) depends

on the roots of the characteristic equation

• The roots of the characteristic equation can also be determined from

the corresponding system transfer function G(s) = b(s)/a(s)

• The values of s that make the denominator polynomial a(s) equal zero
are called the poles of the transfer function.

• The transfer function poles are identical to the roots of the

characteristic equation
 Characteristic Roots and the Transfer Function

• Example 7.3: 3-way valve with applied force f(t) 0.04 y  16 y  7000 y  f (t )

Characteristic equation: 0.04r 2  16r  7000 0

1
Transfer function: G (s) 
0.04s 2  16s  7000

 Two roots are

r1  200  j 367.42
 Poles of TF G(s) are the same as
r2  200  j 367.42 the characteristic roots
 DC Gain and the Steady State

• An extremely useful analysis technique is the use of the DC gain to compute a system’s
steady-state response to a constant input. The term “DC gain” is derived from circuit
analysis (DC implies a constant, non-oscillating input)

• Definition: the system DC gain is the steady-state gain to a constant input, for the case
when the output has a constant value at steady state.

• The DC gain for a given transfer function is computed by simply setting s = 0

– This result arises from application of the Final Value Theorem in Laplace transform theory

• Note that setting s = 0 is similar to setting D = 0 in our D-operator method; in other

words, all time derivatives are zero because the system has reached steady state
(constant output)
 DC Gain: Example 7.4
• Consider a solenoid actuator that provides a force mechanical system (spool valve)

fSS = 16 N

• Suppose the input to the solenoid is a constant voltage, u = 2 V

• The DC gain of the Solenoid dynamics is simply 12/1.5 = 8

• Therefore, at steady state, the solenoid dynamics can be replaced by a constant gain = 8,
and therefore the steady-state EM force is f ss 2 8 16N
 DC Gain: Example 7.4 (2)
•The DC gain of the valve TF is simply 1/ 7000 1.42 10  4

Therefore, the steady-state valve position is

yss 16 1.42 10 4 2.3mm

12 1
Of course, the DC gain of the entire system = 
5 7000

yss 2 1.14 10 3 2.3mm

 7.3 First-Order System Response
• Recall that many of the models we derived in the earlier chapters resulted in first-order
systems

• First-order examples include mass-damper mechanical systems, RL or RC circuits

(solenoids and filters), single-chamber hydraulic systems, single-vessel pneumatic
systems, or single-capacitance thermal systems (example models are below):

1st-order mechanical rotor (no spring) J  b T

1st-order RC electrical circuit RCe C  eC ein (t )
 First-Order System: Standard Form
• All of the various physical models on the prior slide have the following “standard
form”
 y  y bu (t )
• The constant  and “output variable variable” y is defined for all physical models as
shown below

Physical system Output variable y Constant 

J  b T Mechanical rotor  , angular velocity J/b
RCe C  eC ein (t ) RC circuit eC , capacitor voltage RC
RCP  P Pin (t ) Pneumatic chamber P , chamber pressure RC
RCT  T T a
Thermal chamber T , chamber temperature RC
 First-Order System: Natural Response
• Recall that the natural response (homogeneous solution) is the response with ZERO
input:
y  y 0 Standard form

• We can easily find the natural response by writing the characteristic equation for the
standard 1st-order model:

r  1 0 One characteristic root: r = -1/

• Therefore, the natural (homogeneous) response is

Homogeneous solution: due to IC

yH(t) = ce = ce
rt -t/
only with ZERO input

For the case with ZERO input, the constant c is simply the initial condition (IC)
for the dynamic variable, c = y(0) = y0
 First-Order System: Time Constant 
• Repeat the natural response (for zero input)

yH(t) = y0e-t/

y  y 0

Decayed to 36.8% e  1 0.368

Decayed to 2% e  4 0.018

Definition: the “settling time” tS is the approx. time to reach S-S

For a 1st-order system, tS = 4
 First-Order System: Step Response
• Consider again the “standard form” of a 1st-order system with u (t )  AU (t )

 y  y bu (t )  y  y  Ab

y (t )  y H (t )  y P (t ) Total response

yH = ce-t/ yP  Ab  yss

y (t ) ce  t /  yss Complete Solution

 First-Order System: Step Response (2)

y (t ) ce  t /  yss Total response

• Next, apply the IC x(0) = y0 to obtain the constant c

y (0) ce 0  yss  y0  c = y0 – yss

• The total response of the 1st-order system (to a step input)

y (t ) y0  yss e  t /  yss

Transient response Steady-state response

 Sketching the Step Response
1st-Order System
• Sketching a 1st-order step response is simple
– Re-write the 1st-order model in the “standard form” and compute the time constant, 

– Estimate the settling time as four time constants, i.e., tS = 4

– Compute the steady-state response for the constant input

– Sketch an exponential response from the initial condition y0 to the steady-state value yss

– The response approximately reaches yss at t = tS = 4

– The total response will “decay down” if y0 > yss , or show an “exponential rise” if yss > y0
 1st-Order System Step Response
Example 7.5

• The electrical input is voltage ein(t), and the output is force f (in N). An appropriate first-
order model is

0.003 f  1.5 f 12ein (t )

• Divide by 1.5 to write the first-order model in our standard form:

 y  y bu (t )  0.002 f  f 8ein (t )

the time constant is  = 0.002 sec, and the settling time tS = 4 = 0.008 sec = 8 ms

If the magnitude of the step input is ein(t) = 2 V, then the steady-state

output will be fss = (8)(2) = 16 N
 1st-Order System Step Response: Example 7.5 (2)

• The step response (from Simulink) is below. The response is clearly exponential and
the settling time is indeed 8 ms, and the steady-state response is 16 N

Step response of solenoid actuator

(first-order system)
 1st-Order System Impulse Response

2 y  10 y 3u (t )

Sketch the response for step input: u (t ) 6U (t )

Initial condition: y (0)  2
 7.4 Second-Order System Response

• Many systems are modeled by second-order ODEs

– Mechanical (mass-spring-damper)
– Electrical (RLC circuit)

• Several complex, higher-order systems (like aircraft) have dominant modes

that display a basic second-order system response

• In many cases, we can predict the behavior of a second-order system based

on several key parameters (instead of solving for the exact time response)
 Second-Order Systems: Roots
• Consider the 2nd-order I/O equation:

y  a1 y  a0 y b0u (t )

• The natural or free response (zero input) will depend on the roots of the characteristic
equation

r 2  a1r  a 0 0 Characteristic Equation

• The two root locations are

 a1  a12  4a 0 Recall: j 1
r
2
1) real and distinct; 2) real and repeated (radicand = 0);
3) complex conjugates (radicand < 0); 4) purely complex (coefficient a1 = 0 and a0 > 0)
 Case1:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 1 real and distinct

• Both roots are real and distinct (not repeated)

Example: y  4 y  3 y u (t )

Characteristic Equation r 2  4r  3 0 y H (t ) c1e  t  c2 e  3t

Characteristic roots r1 = -1, r2 = -3

Therefore, the natural response (no input) is composed of two exponential functions, with time
constants 1 sec and 1/3 sec

Stable, exponential natural response (dies out to zero)

 Case1:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 1 real and distinct

Two real, distinct, NEGATIVE roots:

r1 < 0 , r2 < 0
 Case1:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 1 real and distinct

• Both roots are real, one root is positive

Example: y  2 y  3 y u (t )

Characteristic Equation r 2  2r  3 0
y H (t ) c1e t  c2 e  3t
Characteristic roots r1 = 1, r2 = -3
unstable

Therefore, the natural response (no input) is composed of two exponential functions; but et
diverges to infinity (unstable)
 Case1:
2nd-Order Roots: Case 1 real and distinct

Two real, distinct roots with one root > 0

r1 > 0 , r2 < 0
 Case1:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 1 real and distinct

• Both roots are real, one root is zero, one root is negative
Example: y  3 y u (t )

Characteristic Equation r 2  3r 0 y H (t ) c1e 0  c2 e  3t c1  c2 e  3t

Characteristic roots r1 = 0, r2 = -3
Does not “die out”

Therefore, the natural response (no input) is composed of a constant and one exponential function
(marginally stable)
 Case1:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 1 real and distinct

Two real roots, one negative and one root = zero

r1 = 0 , r2 < 0
 Case2
2 -Order Root Locations Case 2
nd
real and repeated

• Two real repeated roots (both are negative for this example)

Example: y  6 y  9 y u (t )

Characteristic Equation r 2  6r  9 0
Characteristic roots r1 = -3, r2 = -3

y H (t ) c1te  3t  c2 e  3t
 Case2
real and repeated
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 2

Two repeated NEGATIVE real roots

r1 = r2 < 0
 Case2
real and repeated
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 2

Two repeated POSITIVE real roots

r1 = r2 > 0
 Case2
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 2 real and repeated

Two repeated ZERO roots

r1 = r2 = 0
 Case 3:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 3 complex conjugates

• Roots are complex conjugates, with a negative real part

Example: y  4 y  29 y u (t )
Out put

Characteristic Equation r 2  4r  29 0
Characteristic roots r1, 2  2  j 5

Using Euler’s Thm: e j cos   j sin 

y H (t ) e  2t c3 cos 5t  c4 sin 5t 

Therefore, the natural response (no input) is a stable, damped sinusoidal function, where the real
part is the exp decay, and imaginary part is the frequency
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 3 Case 3:
complex conjugates

Complex conjugate roots with NEGATIVE real part

r1, 2   j where  < 0

 Case 3:
2 -Order Root Locations Case 3
nd
complex conjugates

• Roots are complex conjugates, with a positive real part

Example: y  4 y  29 y u (t )

Characteristic Equation r 2  4r  29 0
Characteristic roots r1, 2 2  j 5


y H (t ) c1e 2 j 5 t  c2 e 2 j 5 t e 2t c1e j 5t  c2 e  j 5t 
y H (t ) e 2t c3 cos 5t  c4 sin 5t 
unstable
 2nd-Order Root Locations Case 3:
complex conjugates
Case 3 (con’t)
Complex conjugate roots with POSITIVE real part

r1, 2   j where  > 0

 Case 4:
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 4 complex

• Roots are complex conjugates, with a zero real part

Example: y  9 y u (t )
Characteristic Equation r 2  9 0
Characteristic roots r1, 2 j 3

y H (t ) c1e j 3t  c2 e  j 3t

y H (t ) c3 cos 3t  c4 sin 3t

Therefore, the natural response (no input) is an undamped harmonic oscillator, imaginary part is the
frequency, and the sinusoidal response never “dies out”
2nd-Order Root Locations Case 4

Two imaginary roots (real part is ZERO)

r1, 2 j
 Damping Ratio and
Undamped Natural Frequency
• We can characterize the transient response of a second-order system by two basic
parameters
– Damping ratio 
– Undamped natural frequency, n

• To show this, consider the generic 2

  -order system:
nd
y  a1 y  a0 y b0u (t )

• The characteristic equation is

r 2  a1r  a0 0

 a1  a12  4a 0
Root locations: r
2
 Critically Damped System

 a1  a12  4a 0
r
2

If a12 < 4a0 then the roots If a12 > 4a0 then the roots
If a1 = 4a0 then the roots
2

are complex are real and distinct

are real and repeated
(damped sinusoid) (exponential decay  no oscillations)

• Therefore, the condition a12 = 4a0 is the critical transition point between a damped oscillating
response and a damped exponential response

If coefficient a1 2 a0 then the system is critically damped

 Damping Ratio
• We choose to define the damping ratio as the ratio of actual damping coefficient to its
critically damped value

a1
  “Damping ratio”
2 a0

• If  = 1, the system is critically damped (no oscillations in the natural or transient

response)

• If 0 <  < 1, the system is underdamped (oscillations are present in the natural or
transient response)

• If  > 1, the system is overdamped (no oscillations in the natural or transient response)
 2nd-Order System: Standard Form
• Like the 1st-order system, we can define a “standard form” for the 2 nd-order system:

mx  bx  kx  f (t ) y  2 n y  n2 y u (t )

Substitute for and n and we get the traditional mass-spring-damper

• For the undamped ()/underdamped (0<) case, the (complex) roots are

r  n  jn 1   2

• The natural (free) response is

y H (t ) ce   nt cosd t   
 Underdamped 2nd-Order System
• The natural (free) response is (repeated)

y H (t ) ce   nt cosd t    r  n  jn 1   2

2nd-order root locations

• Note that the real part of the complex roots determines the exponential decay rate of the transient
response

• Note that the imaginary part of the complex roots determines the frequency of oscillation of the
transient response

“Damped frequency”
d n 1   2
frequency of oscillation of
the transient response
 Underdamped System: Root Locations
• Root locations in the “complex plane”, where +x is the Real-number axis, and +y is the Imaginary-number axis

Imaginary
n , n 1   2

r  n  jn 1   2 X
2nd-order underdamped Complex Plane
root locations b c

θ
Right triangle: a2 + b2 = c2 a 0
Real
a = n Real part

b n 1   2 Imaginary part

X
 n
Angle: cos  
 c = n distance from origin to root n
Note: θ = 0  damping = 1
 Underdamped Root Locations (2)
Imaginary
Radial lines: X
All roots have X
the same damping
ratio near negative real Complex Plane
axis increase, and decreases
X
near imaginary axis

X X Horizontal lines: all roots have the

same damped frequency ωd

0 Real
X

X
Circles:
All roots have
the same undamped X Complex roots ALWAYS appear
natural frequency ωn, increasing as conjugate pairs  symmetric
radius increases ωn about the Real axis
 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System
• Performance criteria for the transient response of an underdamped second-order system are
often based on the step response

y  2 n y  n2 y  A = constant (step)

y t   yH t   yP t  1  e t  c3 cos  t  c4 sin  t  , Unit Step response of an underdamped

system
  n ;   n 1   2

 Derivation as home practice

c3  1; c4 

  
y t  1  e  cos  t  sin  t 
t Unit Step response of an underdamped
   system
 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System

  
y t  1  e  cos  t  sin  t 
t Unit Step response of an underdamped
   system

  n ;   n 1   2

For n 1 and  0.2, 0.4

 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System

• Performance equations for step response

– Period of Oscillation
2
Tperiod  where  d  n 1   2
d

– Peak Time: time to reach maximum output tp 
n 1  2
– Peak/Maximum output to unit step input

  
y t  1  e  cos  t  sin  t 
t
  

 / d   
ymax 1  e  cos   sin   Put   n , d n 1   2
ymax 1  e   / 1  2
 d 
Function of ζ only
 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System

• Performance equations for step response

– Maximum Overshoot Mos: difference between peak and steady state normalized by
steady state
ymax  yss ymax 1  e   / 1  2
M os  with
yss
• As steady state response to unit step input is 1, therefore

  / 1  2
M os e

• For general case

ymax  yss 1  M os 
 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System

• Performance equations for step response

– Settling time: Time to steady state e t e  4  t  4 / 
4
ts  = 4 time constants
 n
– Number of cycles during transient response = N ×Tperiod = tS N= tS / Tperiod

2 1  2
N cycles  Function of ζ only

 Step Response of an Underdamped 2nd Order System

The concepts and formulation discussed so far are for underdamped system only
 Therefore, first determine if the 2nd-order system is underdamped (check roots or ζ ) before applying these
transient-response equations!
 2nd order system
k
G ( s) 
Ymax s 2  2n s  n2


Peak time tp 
n 1   2
Yss
4
Settling time ts 
n

Maximum overshot
ymax  yss
M os 
yss

tr t p ts   / 1  2
Maximum overshot M os e
 2nd-Order Underdamped System:
Example 7.8
• Sketch the step response

0.2  1.6  65 Tin (t )

Step input is 2.5 N-m

Divide by J = 0.2 kg-m2 to obtain standard form

  8  325 5Tin (t ) y  2n y  n2 y bu (t )


2n n2
 Undamped frequency n  325 18.0278 rad/s,
and  = 0.2219 (underdamped) ss = (5)(2.5)/325 = 0.0385 rad
 2nd-Order Underdamped System:
Example 7.8 (2)
• Use undamped natural frequency n and damping ratio  to compute all
performance metrics for underdamped step response

Peak time: tp  = 0.1787 sec
n 1   2

  / 1  2
Max overshoot: M OS e = 0.498 (48.9% overshoot)

4
Settling time: tS  = 1.0 sec
 n
2
Period: Tperiod  = 0.3574 sec Ncycles = 2.8
n 1   2
2nd-Order Underdamped System:
Example 7.8 (3)
48.9% overshoot
Peak response max = 0.0573 rad
Peak time tp = 0.179 sec

Period = 0.3574 sec Steady-state

response ss = 0.0385 rad

Settling time ts = 1.0 sec

Ncycles = 2.8
 7.6 SSR and Eigenvalues
• We can derive the characteristic equation (and therefore, find the roots) using state-
space representation (SSR)

• To begin, consider the unforced (homogeneous) state equation

x  Ax
• Following our previous methods for solving ODEs, let’s assume the solutions are
exponential functions of time:

x1 (t ) c1e t
x2 (t ) c2e t
or, in compact
x(t ) ce t
 notation:

t
xn (t ) cn e
 SSR and Eigenvalues (2)
• The time-derivative of the assumed solution is
x (t ) ce t
• Sub this expression into the state equation

x  Ax  ce  Acet t

• Move all terms to the left-hand side and factor out cet

I  Ace t
0

Because cet cannot be always

be zero we get:
I  A detI  A  0
 SSR and Eigenvalues (3)
• Expanding the determinant provides an nth-order polynomial in   the
characteristic equation

I  A detI  A  0

• The n values of that satisfy the determinant equation are called the
eigenvalues of matrix A

• Remember: the eigenvalues provide information about the natural or

free response
 SSR and Eigenvalues (4)
• If a SISO system is represented by an I/O equation, it is easy to compute
the characteristic equation and solve for the n characteristic roots

• If the SISO system is represented by a transfer function G(s) it is easy to

find the poles (set denominator = 0)

• If the system is represented by a SSR, it is easy to compute the

eigenvalues ( MATLAB: >> eig(A) )
I  A det I  A  0

Characteristic roots = poles of G(s) = eigenvalues

 Chapter 7: Summary
• The complete solution of an ODE is composed of the homogeneous (“free”) and
particular (“forced”) responses, where the free response is dictated by the
characteristic roots, and the forced response depends on the nature of the input
function

• First- and second-order systems were studied in depth

– First-order system response depends on the time constant 
– Underdamped second-order system transient response depends on damping ratio and
undamped natural frequency n

• The characteristic roots are computed from the characteristic equation, which can be
derived from the system’s I/O equation, transfer function, or state-space
representation
– The location of the roots in the complex plane determines the system’s response speed and
damping characteristics