Introduction to Parallel

Computing
6001334-3 Distributed & Parallel Systems
What is Parallel Computing? (1)
• Traditionally, software has been written for serial computation:
• To be run on a single computer having a single Central Processing Unit (CPU);
• A problem is broken into a discrete series of instructions.
• Instructions are executed one after another.
• Only one instruction may execute at any moment in time.
What is Parallel Computing? (2)
• In the simplest sense, parallel computing is the simultaneous use of multiple
compute resources to solve a computational problem.
• To be run using multiple CPUs
• A problem is broken into discrete parts that can be solved concurrently
• Each part is further broken down to a series of instructions
• Instructions from each part execute simultaneously on different CPUs
Parallel Computing: Resources
• The compute resources can include:
• A single computer with multiple processors;
• A single computer with (multiple) processor(s) and some specialized
computer resources (GPU, FPGA …)
• An arbitrary number of computers connected by a network;
• A combination of both.
Parallel Computing: The
computational problem
• The computational problem usually demonstrates characteristics such
as the ability to be:
• Broken apart into discrete pieces of work that can be solved simultaneously;
• Execute multiple program instructions at any moment in time;
• Solved in less time with multiple compute resources than with a single
compute resource.
Parallel Computing: what for? (1)
• Parallel computing is an evolution of serial computing that attempts to emulate what has always
been the state of affairs in the natural world: many complex, interrelated events happening at the
same time, yet within a sequence.
• Some examples:
• Planetary and galactic orbits
• Weather and ocean patterns
• Tectonic plate drift
• Rush hour traffic in Paris
• Automobile assembly line
• Daily operations within a business
• Building a shopping mall
• Ordering a hamburger at the drive through.
Parallel Computing: what for? (2)
• Traditionally, parallel computing has been considered to be "the high
end of computing" and has been motivated by numerical simulations
of complex systems and "Grand Challenge Problems" such as:
• weather and climate
• chemical and nuclear reactions
• biological, human genome
• geological, seismic activity
• mechanical devices - from prosthetics to spacecraft
• electronic circuits
• manufacturing processes
Parallel Computing: what for? (3)
• Today, commercial applications are providing an equal or greater driving force in the development
of faster computers. These applications require the processing of large amounts of data in
sophisticated ways. Example applications include:
• parallel databases, data mining
• oil exploration
• web search engines, web based business services
• computer-aided diagnosis in medicine
• management of national and multi-national corporations
• advanced graphics and virtual reality, particularly in the entertainment industry
• networked video and multi-media technologies
• collaborative work environments
• Ultimately, parallel computing is an attempt to maximize the infinite but seemingly scarce
commodity called time.
Why Parallel Computing? (1)
• This is a legitime question! Parallel computing is complex on any
aspect!

• The primary reasons for using parallel computing:

• Save time - wall clock time
• Solve larger problems
• Provide concurrency (do multiple things at the same time)
Why Parallel Computing? (2)
• Other reasons might include:
• Taking advantage of non-local resources - using available compute resources
on a wide area network, or even the Internet when local compute resources
are scarce.
• Cost savings - using multiple "cheap" computing resources instead of paying
for time on a supercomputer.
• Overcoming memory constraints - single computers have very finite memory
resources. For large problems, using the memories of multiple computers
may overcome this obstacle.
Limitations of Serial Computing
• Limits to serial computing - both physical and practical reasons pose significant constraints to simply building
ever faster serial computers.
• Transmission speeds - the speed of a serial computer is directly dependent upon how fast data can move
through hardware. Absolute limits are the speed of light (30 cm/nanosecond) and the transmission limit of
copper wire (9 cm/nanosecond). Increasing speeds necessitate increasing proximity of processing elements.
• Limits to miniaturization - processor technology is allowing an increasing number of transistors to be placed
on a chip. However, even with molecular or atomic-level components, a limit will be reached on how small
components can be.
• Economic limitations - it is increasingly expensive to make a single processor faster. Using a larger number of
moderately fast commodity processors to achieve the same (or better) performance is less expensive.
The future
• during the past 10 years, the trends indicated by ever faster networks,
distributed systems, and multi-processor computer architectures
(even at the desktop level) clearly show that parallelism is the future
of computing.
• It will be multi-forms, mixing general purpose solutions (your PC…)
and very speciliazed solutions as IBM Cells, ClearSpeed, GPGPU from
NVidia …
Who and What? (1)
• Top500.org provides statistics on parallel computing users - the charts
below are just a sample. Some things to note:
• Sectors may overlap - for example, research may be classified research.
Respondents have to choose between the two.
• "Not Specified" is by far the largest application - probably means
multiple applications.
Who and What? (2)
Concepts and Terminologies
Von Neumann Architecture
• For over 40 years, virtually all computers have followed a common
machine model known as the von Neumann computer. Named after
the Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann.

• A von Neumann computer uses the stored-program concept. The CPU

executes a stored program that specifies a sequence of read and write
operations on the memory.
Basic Design
• Basic design
• Memory is used to store both
program and data instructions
• Program instructions are coded data
which tell the computer to do
something
• Data is simply information to be used
by the program
• A central processing unit (CPU) gets
instructions and/or data from
memory, decodes the instructions
and then sequentially performs
them.
Flynn's Classical Taxonomy
• There are different ways to classify parallel computers. One of the
more widely used classifications, in use since 1966, is called Flynn's
Taxonomy.
• Flynn's taxonomy distinguishes multi-processor computer
architectures according to how they can be classified along the two
independent dimensions of Instruction and Data. Each of these
dimensions can have only one of two possible states: Single or
Multiple.
Flynn Matrix
• The matrix below defines the 4 possible classifications according to
Flynn
Single Instruction, Single Data
(SISD)
• A serial (non-parallel) computer
• Single instruction: only one instruction stream is
being acted on by the CPU during any one clock
cycle
• Single data: only one data stream is being used
as input during any one clock cycle
• Deterministic execution
• This is the oldest and until recently, the most
prevalent form of computer
• Examples: most PCs, single CPU workstations
and mainframes
Eg: Von Numan architecture
Single Instruction, Multiple Data
(SIMD)
• A type of parallel computer
• Single instruction: All processing units execute the same instruction at any given clock
cycle
• Multiple data: Each processing unit can operate on a different data element
• This type of machine typically has an instruction dispatcher, a very high-bandwidth
internal network, and a very large array of very small-capacity instruction units.
• Best suited for specialized problems characterized by a high degree of regularity,such as
image processing.
• Synchronous (lockstep) and deterministic execution
• Two varieties: Processor Arrays and Vector Pipelines
• Examples:
• Processor Arrays: Connection Machine CM-2, Maspar MP-1, MP-2
• Vector Pipelines: IBM 9000, Cray C90, Fujitsu VP, NEC SX-2, Hitachi S820
Multiple Instruction, Single Data
(MISD)
• A single data stream is fed into multiple processing units.
• Each processing unit operates on the data independently via
independent instruction streams.
• Few actual examples of this class of parallel computer have ever
existed. One is the experimental Carnegie-Mellon C.mmp computer
(1971).
• Some conceivable uses might be:
• multiple frequency filters operating on a single signal stream
• multiple cryptography algorithms attempting to crack a single coded
message. Eg: Pipeline Architecture +
Fault-tolerant
computers
Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data
(MIMD)
• Currently, the most common type of parallel computer. Most modern
computers fall into this category.
• Multiple Instruction: every processor may be executing a different
instruction stream
• Multiple Data: every processor may be working with a different data
stream
• Execution can be synchronous or asynchronous, deterministic or non-
deterministic
• Examples: most current supercomputers, networked parallel computer
"grids" and multi-processor SMP computers - including some types of
PCs.
Some General Parallel Terminologies
Like everything else, parallel computing has its own Terminologies or terms "jargon".
Some of the more commonly used terms associated with parallel computing are listed
below. Most of these will be discussed in more detail later.

• Task
• A logically discrete section of computational work. A task is
typically a program or program-like set of instructions that is
executed by a processor.
• Parallel Task
• A task that can be executed by multiple processors safely
(yields correct results)
• Serial Execution
• Execution of a program sequentially, one statement at a
time. In the simplest sense, this is what happens on a one
processor machine. However, virtually all parallel tasks will
have sections of a parallel program that must be executed
serially.
• Parallel Execution
• Execution of a program by more than one task, with each task being able to execute the same or
different statement at the same moment in time.
• Shared Memory
• From a strictly hardware point of view, describes a computer architecture where all processors have
direct (usually bus based) access to common physical memory. In a programming sense, it describes a
model where parallel tasks all have the same "picture" of memory and can directly address and access
the same logical memory locations regardless of where the physical memory actually exists.
• Distributed Memory
• In hardware, refers to network based memory access for physical memory that is not common. As a
programming model, tasks can only logically "see" local machine memory and must use
communications to access memory on other machines where other tasks are executing.
• Communications
• Parallel tasks typically need to exchange data. There are several ways this can be accomplished, such as
through a shared memory bus or over a network, however the actual event of data exchange is
commonly referred to as communications regardless of the method employed.
• Synchronization
• The coordination of parallel tasks in real time, very often associated with communications. Often
implemented by establishing a synchronization point within an application where a task may not
proceed further until another task(s) reaches the same or logically equivalent point.
• Synchronization usually involves waiting by at least one task, and can therefore cause a parallel
application's wall clock execution time to increase.
• Granularity
• In parallel computing, granularity is a qualitative measure of the ratio of computation to
communication.
• Coarse: relatively large amounts of computational work are done between communication events
• Fine: relatively small amounts of computational work are done between communication events
• Observed Speedup
• Observed speedup of a code which has been parallelized, defined as:
wall-clock time of serial execution
wall-clock time of parallel execution
• One of the simplest and most widely used indicators for a parallel program's performance.
• Parallel Overhead
• The amount of time required to coordinate parallel tasks, as opposed to doing useful work. Parallel
overhead can include factors such as:
• Task start-up time
• Synchronizations
• Data communications
• Software overhead imposed by parallel compilers, libraries, tools, operating system, etc.
• Task termination time
• Massively Parallel
• refers to the use of a large number of processors (or separate computers) to perform a set of
coordinated computations in parallel (simultaneously)..
• Scalability
• Refers to a parallel system's (hardware and/or software) ability to
demonstrate a proportionate increase in parallel speedup with the addition of
more processors. Factors that contribute to scalability include:
• Hardware - particularly memory-cpu bandwidths and network communications
• Application algorithm
• Parallel overhead related
• Characteristics of your specific application and coding
 Parallel Computer
Memory Architectures
Memory architectures
• Shared Memory
- is memory that may be simultaneously accessed by multiple programs with an
intent to provide communication among them or avoid redundant copies. Shared
memory is an efficient means of passing data between programs.
• Distributed Memory
- refers to a multiprocessor computer system in which each processor has its own
private memory. Computational tasks can only operate on local data, and if remote
data is required, the computational task must communicate with one or more
remote processors.
• Hybrid Distributed-Shared Memory
- hybrid programming techniques combining the best of distributed and shared
memory programs are becoming more popular.
Shared Memory
• Shared memory parallel computers vary widely, but generally have in
common the ability for all processors to access all memory as global
address space.

• Multiple processors can operate independently but share the same

memory resources.
• Changes in a memory location effected by one processor are visible to
all other processors.
• Shared memory machines can be divided into two main classes based
Shared Memory : UMA vs. NUMA
• Uniform Memory Access (UMA):
• Most commonly represented today by Symmetric Multiprocessor (SMP) machines
• Identical processors
• Equal access and access times to memory
• Sometimes called CC-UMA - Cache Coherent UMA. Cache coherent means if one processor updates a
location in shared memory, all the other processors know about the update. Cache coherency is
accomplished at the hardware level.
• Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA):
• Often made by physically linking two or more SMPs
• One SMP can directly access memory of another SMP
• Not all processors have equal access time to all memories
• Memory access across link is slower
• If cache coherency is maintained, then may also be called CC-NUMA - Cache Coherent NUMA
UMA vs NUMA
Shared Memory: Pro and Con
• Advantages
• Global address space provides a user-friendly programming perspective to memory
• Data sharing between tasks is both fast and uniform due to the proximity of memory to CPUs
• Disadvantages:
• Primary disadvantage is the lack of scalability between memory and CPUs. Adding more CPUs can
geometrically increases traffic on the shared memory-CPU path, and for cache coherent systems,
geometrically increase traffic associated with cache/memory management.
• Programmer responsibility for synchronization constructs that insure "correct" access of global memory.
• Expense: it becomes increasingly difficult and expensive to design and produce shared memory
machines with ever increasing numbers of processors.
Distributed Memory
• Like shared memory systems, distributed memory systems vary widely but share a
common characteristic. Distributed memory systems require a communication network
to connect inter-processor memory.
• Processors have their own local memory. Memory addresses in one processor do not
map to another processor, so there is no concept of global address space across all
processors.
• Because each processor has its own local memory, it operates independently. Changes it
makes to its local memory have no effect on the memory of other processors. Hence, the
concept of cache coherency does not apply.
• When a processor needs access to data in another processor, it is usually the task of the
programmer to explicitly define how and when data is communicated. Synchronization
between tasks is likewise the programmer's responsibility.
• The network "fabric" used for data transfer varies widely, though it can can be as simple
as Ethernet.
Distributed Memory: Pro and Con
• Advantages
• Memory is scalable with number of processors. Increase the number of processors and the size of
memory increases proportionately.
• Each processor can rapidly access its own memory without interference and without the overhead
incurred with trying to maintain cache coherency.
• Cost effectiveness: can use commodity, off-the-shelf processors and networking.
• Disadvantages
• The programmer is responsible for many of the details associated with data communication between
processors.
• It may be difficult to map existing data structures, based on global memory, to this memory
organization.
• Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) times
Hybrid Distributed-Shared Memory
Summarizing a few of the key characteristics of shared and
distributed memory machines
Comparison of Shared and Distributed Memory Architectures

Architecture CC-UMA CC-NUMA Distributed

Examples SMPs Bull NovaScale Cray T3E

Sun Vexx SGI Origin Maspar
DEC/Compaq Sequent IBM SP2
SGI Challenge HP Exemplar IBM BlueGene
IBM POWER3 DEC/Compaq
IBM POWER4 (MCM)
Communications MPI MPI MPI
Threads Threads
OpenMP OpenMP
shmem shmem
Scalability to 10s of processors to 100s of processors to 1000s of processors

Draw Backs Memory-CPU bandwidth Memory-CPU bandwidth System administration

Non-uniform access Programming is hard to
times develop and maintain
Software Availability many 1000s ISVs many 1000s ISVs 100s ISVs
 Hybrid Distributed-Shared Memory
• The largest and fastest computers in the world today employ both shared and distributed memory architectures.

• The shared memory component is usually a cache coherent SMP machine. Processors on a given SMP can address
that machine's memory as global.
• The distributed memory component is the networking of multiple SMPs. SMPs know only about their own memory -
not the memory on another SMP. Therefore, network communications are required to move data from one SMP to
another.
• Current trends seem to indicate that this type of memory architecture will continue to prevail and increase at the
high end of computing for the foreseeable future.
• Advantages and Disadvantages: whatever is common to both shared and distributed memory architectures.