DIGITAL SIGNAL

PROCESSING
TLE 502
Vol 2

Dr. Anthony Ngozichukwuka

Uwaechia
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Basic Operations On Sequences
■ The basic operations on sequences are as follows:
– Time shifting
– Time reversal
– Time scaling
– Amplitude scaling
– Signal addition
– Signal multiplication

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1) Time shifting

■ The time shifting of a signal may result in time delay or time

advance.
■ The time shifting operation of a discrete-time signal can be
represented by

■ This shows that the signal can be obtained by time shifting the
signal by units.
■ If is positive, it is delay and the shift is to the right, and if is
negative, it is advance and the shift is to the left.

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■ An arbitrary signal is shown in Figure 1.11(a). , which is obtained by
shifting to the right by 3 units (i.e. delay by 3 units) is shown in
Figure 1.11(b).
■ which is obtained by shifting to the left by 2 units (i.e. advancing by
2 units) is shown in Figure 1.11(c).

𝑦 (𝑛)=𝑥 (𝑛 – 𝑘)

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2) Time reversal
■ The time reversal also called time folding of a discrete-time signal can be
obtained by folding the sequence about .
■ The time-reversed signal is the reflection of the original signal. It is obtained by
replacing the independent variable by .
 Figure 1.12(a) shows an
arbitrary discrete-time
signal , and its time
reversed version is shown
in Figure 1.12(b).
 Figure 1.12[(c) and (d)]
shows the delayed and
advanced versions of
reversed signal

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■ That is, the signal is obtained by delaying (shifting to the right)
the time reversed signal by 3 units of time.
■ The signal is obtained by advancing (shifting to the left) the time
reversed signal by 3 units of time.

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3) Time Scaling
■ Time scaling may be time expansion or time compression.
■ The time scaling of a discrete- time signal can be accomplished by
replacing by . Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

■ When , it is time compression and when a < 1, it is time expansion.

■ Let be a sequence as shown in Figure 1.13(a). If , . Then

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 x[2n]
Divide by
2 on x-axis

x[n]
multiply by
2 on x-axis

Fig. 1.13: Discrete–time caling (a) Plot of , (b ) Plot o f (c) Plot o f

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4) Amplitude Scaling
■ The amplitude scaling of a discrete-time signal can be represented by
where is a constant.
■ If , it is amplification and if , it is attenuation. Hence, the amplitude
is rescaled. Hence the name amplitude scaling.

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 5) Signal addition

■ In discrete-time domain, the sum of two signals and can be obtained by

adding the corresponding sample values
■ The subtraction of from can be obtained by subtracting each sample of
from the corresponding sample of

If and
Then

and

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 6) Signal Multiplication

■ The multiplication of two discrete-time sequences can be performed

by multiplying their values at the sampling instants as shown below.

If and
Then

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Example: Express the signals shown in Figure 1.14 as the
sum of singular functions.

■ Solution: (a) The given signal shown in Figure 1.14(a) is:

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(b) The signal shown in Figure 1.14(b) is:

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Classification Of Discrete-Time Signals

■Discrete-Time Signals can be classified based on their nature and

characteristics in the time domain. They are broadly classified as:
– Continuous-time signals and
– Discrete-time signals.
■The signals that are defined for every instant of time are known as
continuous-time signals.
■ The continuous-time signals are also called analog signals. They are
denoted by . They are continuous in amplitude as well as in time. Most
of the signals available are continuous-time signals.
■ The signals that are defined only at discrete instants of time are known
as discrete-time signals. The discrete-time signals are continuous in
amplitude, but discrete in time. For discrete- time signals, the amplitude
between two time instants is just not defined.
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■Both continuous-time and discrete-time signals are further
classified as follows:
– Deterministic and random signals
– Periodic and non-periodic signals
– Energy and power signals
– Causal and non-causal signals
– Even and odd signals
1) Deterministic and Random Signals

■ A signal exhibiting no uncertainty of its magnitude and phase at

any given instant of time is called deterministic signal.
■ A deterministic signal can be completely represented by
mathematical equation at any time, and its nature and amplitude at
any time can be predicted.
■ A signal characterized by uncertainty about its occurrence is called
a non-deterministic or random signal. 15
2) Periodic and non-periodic signals
■ A signal which has a definite pattern and repeats itself at regular
intervals of time is called a periodic signal, and a signal which does
not repeat at regular intervals of time is called a non-periodic or
aperiodic signal.
■ A discrete-time signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition
for all integers .
■ If the above condition is not satisfied even for one value of , then the
discrete-time signal is aperiodic.
■ The angular frequency is given by

Fig.1.16: Example of discrete-time: (a) Periodic and (b) Non-periodic signals 16

EXAMPLE: Show that the complex exponential sequence is periodic only if
is a rational number.

Solution:
Given
will be periodic if

This is possible only if

This is true only if
Where k is an integer =
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3) Energy Signals And Power Signals
■ Signals may also be classified as energy signals and power signals.
However there are some signals which can neither be classified as energy
signals nor power signals.
■ The total energy of a discrete-time signal is defined as:

and the average power P of a discrete-time signal is defined as:

■ Or for a digital signal with for

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4) Causal and Non-causal Signals

■ Causal Signals are signals that are zero for all

negative time
■ A discrete-time signal is said to be causal if for , otherwise the signal
is non-causal.
■ A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be anti-causal if for .
■ A causal signal does not exist for negative time and an anti-causal
signal does not exist for positive time.
■ A signal which exists in positive as well as negative time is called a
non-casual signal.
■ is a causal signal and is an anti-causal signal, whereas for is a non-
causal signal.

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5) Even and Odd Signals

■ Any signal can be expressed as sum of even and odd components.

That is

where is even components and is odd components of the signal.

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6) Even (Symmetric) Signal

■ A discrete-time signal is said to be an even (symmetric) signal if it

satisfies the condition:
for all n
■ Even signals are symmetrical about the vertical axis or time origin. Hence,
they are also called symmetric signals: cosine sequence is an example of
an even signal.
■ An even signal is identical to its reflection about the origin. For an even
signal

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7) Odd (Anti-Symmetric) Signal

■ A discrete-time signal is said to be an odd (anti-symmetric) signal

if it satisfies the condition:
for all n
■ Sinusoidal sequence is an example of an odd signal. For an odd
signal . Some odd signals are shown in Figure 1.17(b).

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Classification Of Discrete-Time Systems
■ A system is defined as an entity that acts on an input signal and
transforms it into an output signal.
■ A system may also be defined as a set of elements or functional
blocks which are connected together and produces an output in
response to an input signal.
■ A discrete-time system is represented by a block diagram as
shown in Figure 1.18.

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Cont. Classification Of Discrete-Time Systems

■Both continuous-time and discrete-time systems are further

classified as follows:
– Static (memoryless) and Dynamic (memory) systems
– Causal and non-causal systems
– Linear and non-linear systems
– Time-invariant and time varying systems
– Stable and unstable systems.
– Invertible and non-invertible systems
– FIR and IIR systems

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1) Static and Dynamic Systems

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