GXEST104

Introduction to Electronics
Module IV
• General block diagram of a Communication system, Block diagram of
Fiber optic Communication system. Concept of AM and FM, Block
diagram of AM and FM super-heterodyne receiver
• Basic concepts of Wired and Wireless communication, Block diagram
of GSM. Comparison of 3G, 4G, 5G and 6G communication
technologies .
• Block diagrams of Electronic instrumentation system, Digital
Multimeter, Function generator . Introduction to CRO and Lissajous
patterns
• Applications of modern electronics – IoT based smart homes,
healthcare and agriculture (Case study only).
2
 Introduction
• Fundamental Purpose of communication system is to transfer
information from one place to another.
• One of the main barriers to human communication is distance.
• Electronic communication system can be summarized as transmission,
reception and processing of information between 2 or more locations
using electronic components.
• Process of communication begins when human generated messages
that must be received by others.
• Original source information can be in analog form such as human voice,
music etc or in digital form such as alphanumeric codes.

3
Communication System

4
•In this system message is referred as information

•This message in the form of electronic signal is fed to the transmitter, which
then transmit over the communication channel

•This message signal is picked up by the receiver and relayed to another

human.

•Along the way noise is added in the communication channel and in the
receiver

•Noise is the general term applied to any phenomenon that degrades or

interferes with the transmitted signal.
5
Transmitters:
•Is a collection of electronic components
•Circuits are designed to convert electronic signal to signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication channel
• Modulation is done in this transmitter.
Communication Channel:
•Medium through which the electronic signal is sent from one place to
another.
•It can be wired like optic fiber, wire conductors or wireless like free
space.
•If it is free space the resulting system is known as radio.
•Radio make use of electromagnetic spectrum.
6
Receiver:
• Collection of electronic components
• It accepts the transmitted signal from the channel and converts it into
original message signal
• Demodulation is done at the receiver end

7
 Need For Modulation
Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system because of the
following reasons:
1) Avoids mixing of signals
• One of the basic challenges facing by the communication engineering is
transmitting individual messages simultaneously over a single
communication channel.
• A method by which many signals or multiple signals can be combined into
one signal and transmitted over a single communication channel is called
multiplexing.
• If the multiple baseband sound signals of same frequency range are
combined into one signal and transmitted over a single communication
channel without doing modulation, then all the signals get mixed
together and the receiver cannot separate them from each other. 8
• By using modulation, the baseband sound signals of same frequency
range (I.e. 20 Hz to 20 KHz) are shifted to different frequency ranges.
• After modulation, the multiple signals having different frequency
ranges can be easily transmitted over a single communication channel
without any mixing and at the receiver side, they can be easily
separated.
2) Increase the range of communication
• The greater the frequency of the wave, the greater the energy
possessed by it.
• The baseband audio signals frequency is very low so they cannot be
transmitted over large distances.
• On the other hand, the carrier signal can travel large distances if
radiated directly into space as , they are high frequency or high
energy signal. 9
• The only practical solution to transmit the baseband signal to a large
distance is by mixing the low energy baseband signal with the high
energy carrier signal.
• When the low frequency or low energy baseband signal is mixed with
the high frequency or high energy carrier signal, the resultant signal
frequency will be shifted from low frequency to high frequency.
Therefore, the range of communication is increased.
3) Wireless communication
• it is not possible to radiate baseband signals directly into space because
of its poor signal strength.
• by using the modulation technique, the frequency of the baseband
signal is shifted from low frequency to high frequency.
• Therefore, after modulation, the signal can be directly radiated into
space. 10
4) Reduces the effect of noise
• In modulation technique, a low energy or low frequency message
signal is mixed with the high energy or high frequency carrier signal
to produce a new high energy signal which carries information to a
long distance without getting affected by the external noise.
5) Reduces height of antenna
• In order to effectively transmit and receive the signal, the antenna
height should be approximately equal to the wavelength of the
signal to be transmitted.

11
•For instance, to radiate an audio signal frequency of 20 kHz
directly into space, we would need an antenna height of 15,000
meters.

• The antenna of this height is practically impossible to

construct.
• On the other hand, if the audio signal (20 Hz) has been
modulated by a carrier wave of 200 MHz. Then, we would
need an antenna height of 1.5 meters.

12
Frequency Band

13
• 30-300Hz: (extremely low frequency):includes ac power line
frequency
• Voice freq:(300-3KHz)normal range of human speech.
• Very low freq:(9KHz-30KHz)many musical instruments make sounds in
this range. Also it is used in some government and military
communication. Eg: VLF radio transmission is used by navy to
communicate with submarines.
• Low freq: (30-300KHz) Used in aeronautical and marine navigation.
• Medium frequency: (300KHz-3MHz)Used in AM radio broadcasting
typically it is 535-1605KHz. Also used in aeronautical and marine
navigation.

14
• High frequency:(3-30MHz) Generally known as short waves. All kinds of
half duplex two way communication takes place in this range.
Governmant and military application uses this range for two way
communication. Eg:diplomatic communication between embassies.
• Very high freq: (30MHz-300MHz) Used in aeronautical and marine
communication, mobile radio. FM broadcasting is in this range, 88MHz-
108MHz.
• Ultra High freq: (300MHz-3GHz) widely Used portion of freq
spectrum.It includes UHF TV channels, mobile communication, military
communication, radar and navigation services.
• Microwaves and SHF: (1GHz-30GHz) Microwave oven operated at
2.45GHz. Super High freq are in 3-30GHz. They are used for satellite
communication and radars.Wireless LAN occupy in this region.
15
• Extremely High frequency:(30-300GHz) Electromagnetic signals above
higher than 30GHz are called millimeter waves. Equipments are
expensive and complex when working in this area. But there is a
growing use of this range for satellite telephony, computer data and
specialized radar.
• Optical Spectrum: Right above the millimeter waves its optical
spectrum. They are occupied as infrared, visible light and ultra violet
rays.

16
 Noise:
•Simply defined as unwanted signals
•It is considered as the electronic signal that is a mixture of many
random frequencies at many amplitudes that get added to
information signal
•Its effect is experienced at the receiver part.
•Noise can be external to the receiver or originate within the
receiver itself.

17
 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION
• The optical spectrum ranges from about 50 nm (ultraviolet) to 100 μm (far
infrared)
• Fiber optics uses visible and infrared light.
• Infrared light covers a fairly wide range of wavelengths and is generally
used for all fiber optic communications.
• Visible light (400 nm to 700 nm) is normally used for very short range
transmissions.

18
(a) The general communication system (b) Optical Fiber Communication System
19
• The main blocks are the transmitter, receiver, and optical fiber cable.
• The transmitter converts the input voltage signal into its corresponding current
value.
• This current is used to drive the light source and thus modulate the intensity of
light from the light source. Thus the intensity of light output from the light.
source varies according to the message in the input signal.
• The light sources commonly used are Light Emitting diode (for example, Infrared
LED) and LASER diode.
• The source to the fiber interface is a mechanical coupler such as an optical lens.
• It couples light emitted by the light source into the Optical Fiber Cable (OFC).
• Optical fiber consists of a glass or plastic fiber core, cladding, and a protective
jacket.
• Regenerators, also called repeaters, are used to amplify signals to compensate for
the transmission losses.
• The receiver section includes a fiber-to- light inductor interface, a light detector,
and a current-to-voltage detector.
• The light-to-fiber interface is also a mechanical coupler that couples light from
the fiber cable into the light detector.
• The light detector produces a current proportional to the intensity of light
received.
• Commonly used light detectors include PIN (P-type Intrinsic N-type) diodes,
photo transistor, and Avalanche Photodiode (API)).
• The Current-to-voltage converter converts the electric current to its equivalent
voltage to yield the original message that was transmitted.
• An optical fiber (Figure 6.2) is a solid strand of
glass/plastic that conducts light in the same way as
copper wire conducts electricity.
• Information is transmitted through an optical fiber
in the form of light pulses.
• The fiber-optic technology is based on a principle
known as total internal reflection.
• Total internal reflection :-When a light ray crosses
an interface into a medium with a higher refractive
index, it bends towards the normal.
• Conversely, light crossing an interface from a
higher refractive index medium to a lower
refractive index medium will bend away from the
normal.
• Light transmission through an optical fiber:- The core
is the inner part of the fiber, which guides light.
• The cladding surrounds the core completely. It shields
optical fields in order to avoid interference by the
outer layers of the fiber.
• The refractive index of the core is higher than that of
the cladding, so light in the core that strikes the
boundary with the cladding at an angle larger than
the critical angle will be reflected back into the core
by total internal reflection.
• The core and cladding are both made of pure silica
glass, whereas the jacket is made of plastic.
 Amplitude Modulation
• A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is
the baseband message signal, which contains the information.
• “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.”
• Means, the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information
varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each
instant.

25
It can be observed that
the positive and
negative peaks of the
carrier wave, are
interconnected with an
imaginary line. This line
helps recreating the
exact shape of the
modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the
carrier wave is called
as Envelope. It is the
same as that of the
message signal. 26
27
28
29
Spectrum of AM Wave

LSB=Lower side Band

USB=Upper Side Band

30
•an AM broadcast station has a total bandwidth of 10 kHz.
• AM broadcast stations are spaced every 10 kHz across the spectrum
from540 to 1600 kHz.
•There are a total of 107 10-kHz-wide channels for AM radio stations.

31
 Frequency Modulation
• Frequency modulation or commonly referred to as FM is a common
term that we hear in our daily lives.
• Today, FM is used widely in radio communication and broadcasting.
• But have we wondered what it actually is or what is the technology and
mechanism behind it?

32
 Introduction
• A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is
the baseband message signal, which contains the information.
• “The frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, by keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.”
• Means, the frequency of the carrier signal containing no information
varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each
instant.

33
34
• If we observe the graph, we will notice that the frequency of a carrier
increases when the amplitude of the input signal is increased.
• Here, the carrier frequency is maximum when the input signal is at its
highest.
• Meanwhile, the frequency of a carrier decreases if the amplitude of
the modulating signal goes down.
• What it means is that the carrier frequency is minimum when the
input signal is at its lowest.
• Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant
and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the
amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.
35
36
ECT 283 ANALOG COMMUNICATION. Dept. Electronics and Communication Engineering

• Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum

between 88.5 and 108 MHz use large values of deviation, typically ±75
kHz. This is known as wide-band FM (WBFM).
• These signals are capable of supporting high quality transmissions,
but occupy a large amount of bandwidth.

37
38
 Requirements of a Receiver
Following are the requirements of both AM and FM receiver.
• It should be cost-effective.
• It should receive the corresponding modulated waves.
• The receiver should be able to tune and amplify the desired station.
• It should have an ability to reject the unwanted stations.
• Demodulation has to be done to all the station signals, irrespective of
the carrier signal frequency.

39
 Super heterodyne receiver
What Heterodyning is
• heterodyne means to mix to frequencies together so as to produce a
beat frequency, namely the difference between the two.
What Superheterodyning is
• the term superheterodyne refers to creating a beat frequency that is
lower than the original signal.
• What superheterodying does is to purposely mix in another frequency
in the receiver, so as to reduce the signal frequency prior to
processing.

40
RF Mixing
• The RF mixing unit develops an Intermediate Frequency (IF) to which
any received signal is converted, so as to process the signal effectively.
• RF Mixer is an important stage in the receiver.
• Two signals of different frequencies are taken where one signal level
affects the level of the other signal, to produce the resultant mixed
output.
•Let the first and second signal frequencies be f1 and f2.
•If these two signals are applied as inputs of RF mixer, then it produces
an output signal, having frequencies of f1+f2 and f1−f2.

41
1st signal

2nd signal

resultant signal

42
43
 Super heterodyne
receiver

44
 Super heterodyne
receiver
•The AM super heterodyne receiver takes the amplitude modulated
wave as an input and produces the original audio signal as an
output.
•Selectivity is the ability of selecting a particular signal, while
rejecting the others.
•Sensitivity is the capacity of detecting RF signal and demodulating it,
while at the lowest power level.

45
the most widely used IF was between 455 kHz . This was chosen because it was between the long and
medium wave broadcast bands and relatively few high power stations operated in this region. The choice
of a 455 kHz IF enabled the simple LC IF transformers to give adequate selectivity for many applications as
well as providing adequate image rejection for many applications
Benefits of IF

48
1. Many Carriers, One IF
•One of the more intuitive advantages of an IF is the ability to design a receiver
in which more of the circuitry can be designed for one unchanging frequency
band.
•If a tunable receiver does not use an intermediate frequency, all of the high-
frequency circuitry must be compatible with the full range of possible carrier
frequencies; this is undesirable, because it is easier to design RF components
and circuits that are optimized for a small range of signal frequencies.
2. Minimizing High-Frequency Processing
•reduced number of components that must operate at the high—sometimes
very high—frequency of the received signal.
•Everything becomes more difficult as frequencies climb into the gigahertz
range: transistors have less gain, passive components become increasingly
different from their idealized low-frequency models, transmission-line effects
become more prominent 49
3. Lower Q:
• Consider the following scenario: A receiver must extract the information from
a narrowband RF signal that is accompanied by strong interfering signals with
frequency close to the edges of the spectrum of the desired signal.

• A band-pass filter is used to suppress these interfering signals so that they

don’t corrupt the demodulated data; however, designing an effective band-
pass filter under these circumstances is not easy.
Q=center frequency/bandwidth

• Thus, we can see that a straightforward way to decrease the required Q is to

lower the center frequency, and IF techniques allow us to do exactly that.

50
GSM-GLOBAL SYSTEM MOBILE
• Development of fundamental technology for GSM started in Nordic countries in 1980s,
led by Ericsson and then transferred to a standardization body
• Basic GSM900, experienced extensive modification to address the increasing demands of
users.
• Now the standardisation is taken care by 3rd generation partnership project(3GPP).
• One of the major objective of GSM standard was to create a digital system suitable for
low-cost mass production.
• The criteria stipulated was the GSM system should provide at least the same or better
speech quality and better spectrum efficiency compared to existing standards
• In addition to that, it must support Global roaming, authentication, user confidentiality
etc.
• GSM achieved global acceptance by the end of 1990s
GSM ARCHITECTURE
GSM
GSM
GSM
1.Base Station System (BSS)-
2.Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)-
3.Public Network
 GSM

1.Base Station System (BSS)-

• It is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network
switching system
• Consists of Base Station Controller (BSC) and Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
• The base transceiver station (BTS), is a term used to denote a base station in GSM terminology.
• It handles the radio interface to the mobile station.
• A BTS consist of an antenna and the radio equipment necessary to communicate by radio with a
mobile station (MS). Each BTS covers a defined area, called as a cell.
• Base Station Controller (BSC):
• A Base Station Controller BSC is a critical mobile network component that control one or more
base transceiver station (BTS).
• It provides the control function and physical means between MSC and BTS
GSM
2. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)-
• Mobile Switching Centre(MSC)
• The home location register (HLR)
• The Visitor Location Register (VLR)
• The Authentication Centre (AUC)
• The Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• Operation Maintenance Center (OMC)
 GSM
• Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) –
• It is a main part of the GSM and CDMA network system which acts as a
control center of a Network Switching Subsystem (NSS).
• It connects calls between subscribers by switching the digital voice packets
between network paths
• The home location registers (HLR) –
• Store permanent data about subscriber like profile, location info, activity status.
• The Visitor Location Register (VLR) –
• Stores temporary info about subscribers integrated with MSC & it work in co-
ordination with HLR.
• It is needed by MSC to service visiting subscribers.
• When a subscriber enters a new MSC area , a copy of all the necessary information
is downloaded from HLR into VLR
 GSM
• The Authentication Centre (AUC) –
• Protected database.
• Stores a copy of authentication and encryption keys for all subscribers in HLR and VLR.
• Used for authentication.
• Protects from different type of fraud.
• The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) –
• Database that contain list of all valid mobile on network.
• IMEI used to identify each MS.
• Operation Maintenance Center (OMC) –
• This department maintain all telecommunications hardware and network operations
with a particular market.
• It also Manage all charging and billing procedures.
• Fault detection and management.
 GSM

3. Public Network
• The public switched telephone network (PSTN) –
• The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the worldwide collection on
interconnected public telephone network that was designed primarily for analog
calls.
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) –
• ISDN is a set of international communication standards designed in 1980’s and
improved in 1990’s.
• It is a digital network which is to transmit voice, image, video and text over the
existing circuit – switched PSTN telephone network.
EC-305 Microprocessor & Microcontroller. Dept. Electronics and Communication Engineering

END OF MODULE 4