CHAPTER – 2 REFERENCE MODELS

2.1 Definition of Protocol

2.2 The OSI Reference Model

2.3 The TCP/IP Reference Model

2.4 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

 2.1 Definition of Protocol
Text Book Name : Forouzen : Page No : 19, Ref. Book Name : A. S. Tanenbaum

 A protocol is a set of rules that manages all aspects of data communication.

 It represents an agreement between the communication devices.

 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating.

 A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is

communicated

 The key elements of protocol are:

Syntax :

Syntax refers to the format of the data or structure of data syntax tells us the order
in which data are presented

Semantics :

Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits, how particular pattern to
be represented is and what action is to be taken based on that presentation.
Timing :

 Timing refers to two characteristics:

1. When data should be sent

2. How fast they can be sent

Following are the few examples of protocols :

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

POP - Post Office Protocol

TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

UDP - User Datagram Protocol

IP - Internet Protocol
 2.2 The OSI Reference Model
Text Book Name : Forouzen : Page No : 29 to 41, Ref. Book Name : A. S. Tanenbaum

 Open System Interconnection (OSI) model was first introduced in 1970 and developed by the
ISO (International Standards Organization).

 The model is called ISO OSI reference model because it deals with connecting open systems
that is the systems that are open for communication with other system.

 An open system is a model that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture.

 Its purpose was developing universally excepted networking protocols.

 OSI model is not a protocol, it is a model fro understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust and interoperable.

 The OSI reference model has seven separate layers but related with each other, each of which
defines the process of moving information across the network. Each layer represents categories
of related task.

 Layer 1,2 and 3 that is physical, data link and network layers are the network support layer.
Layer 5,6 and 7 that is session, presentation and application layers are the user support layer.
Transport layer links the network support layers and the user support layers.
 At the physical layer, communication is direct: In figure Host A sends a stream of bits to Host B.

The OSI Reference Model

Figure Source : www.homepages.uel.ac.uk
PHYSICAL LAYER

 The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits over a physical medium form one node
to another node.

 Physical layer deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.

 The physical layer also concerned with the following:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium

2. Representation of bits

3. Data rate (Transmission rate)

4. Synchronization of bits

5. Line Configuration

6. Physical Topology

7. Transmission Mode
DATA LINK LAYER

 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.

 Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1. Framing

2. Physical addressing

3. Flow Control

4. Error Control

5. Access Control

 The Data Link Layer divided into two sub layers

Logical Link Control Layer (LLC) :

 Logical Link Control Layer responsible for flow control, error detection & requesting
function for connection oriented communication but which also supports connection less
communication
Media Access Control Layer (MMC) :

 Logical Link Control Layer responsible for flow control, error detection & requesting
function for connection oriented communication but which also supports connection
less communication

NETWORK LAYER

 The Network Layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packet possibly
across multiple networks.

 If two systems are connected to the same network, there is usually no need for a network
layer. However, if two systems are attached to different networks with connecting devices
between the networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery.

 Other responsibilities of the Network Layer include the following:

1. Logical Addressing

2. Routing Packets

3. It also supplies connection less and connection oriented services to the transport layer
TRANSPORT LAYER

 The Transport Layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
A process is an application program running on a host.

 Other responsibilities of the Transport Layer include the following:

1. Service-Point Addressing (Port Addressing)

2. Segmentation and Reassembly

3. Connection Control

4. Flow Control

5. Error Control
SESSION LAYER

 Session Layer defines how connection can be established, maintained and terminated.

 Session Layer also responsible for the following:

1. Dialog Control

2. Synchronization points

PRESENTATION LAYER

 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.

 Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

1. Translation

2. Encryption and Decryption

3. Data compression
APPLICATION LAYER

 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

 It provides user interfaces and support services such as e-mail, file transfer, database
management and other type of distributed information services.

 Protocol at these level includes:

HTTP: Hyper text transfer protocol

FTP: File transfer protocol

SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol

NVT: Network virtual terminal

 2.3 The TCP/IP Model
Text Book Name : Forouzen : Page No : 42 to 45, Ref. Book Name : A. S. Tanenbaum

 The TCP/IP model uses four layers that logically span the equivalent of the top six layers of
the OSI reference model; this is shown in Figure. The following are the TCP/IP model layers,
starting from the bottom.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

Figure Source : www.tcpipguide.com
 Figure shows the TCP/IP protocol suite.

APPLICATION
SMTP FTP TFTP SNMP TELNET
LAYER
TRANSPORT
TCP UDP
LAYER

IP LAYER ICMP IGMP IP ARP RARP

DATALINK LAYER Protocols defined by the underlying protocols

PHYSICAL LAYER Protocols defined by the underlying protocols

TCP/IP protocol suite

Figure Source : Data Communication & Networking, -Forouzan (Page no - 43)
Physical and Data Link Layer :

 The function of the physical and data link layer are almost same as in OSI model.

Network or IP Layer :

 At the network layer, TCP / IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP,ICMP and IGMP.

Internetworking Protocol (IP) :

 The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP / IP
protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol – a best-effect delivery service.

 The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking.

 IP transport data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.

 Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they
arrive at their destination.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) :

 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a
physical address.

 ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when it’s Internet address is known.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) :

 The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address.

 It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless
computer is booted.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) :

 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways
to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender.

 ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) :

 The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

 Some processes sometimes need to send the same message to a large number of receivers
at same time. This is called Multicasting. So for multicasting purpose IGMP protocol is used.

Transport Layer :

 Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP / IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP

 IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to
another.

 UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a
process (running program) to another process.

 A new transport layer protocol, SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), has been
devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) :

 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP / IP transport
protocols. It is process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.

 UDP is connectionless and unreliable protocol. The packet produces by UDP is called User
Datagram.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) :

 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to

applications.

 TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term Stream, in this context, means
connection-oriented.

 A connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either can
transmit data.

 At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units
called segments. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgment number for the segments received.
 Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.

 At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
transmission based on sequence numbers.

Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) :

 The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer applications
such as voice over the Internet.

 It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

Application Layer :

 The application layer in TCP / IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.

 Many protocols are defined at this layer, SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP and SNMP, etc.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) :

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to sending and e-mail messages between
servers.

 Most e-mail systems that send mail over the internet use SMTP to send messages from one
server to another.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) :

 File Transfer Protocol is the standard mechanism provided by the TCP / IP for copying file
from one computer to another computer.

 To copy the file some problems must occurs like two systems may use different file
structure, two systems may have different way to represent text and data, two systems may
have different directory structures. All this problems have been solved by FTP.

 FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload
a file to a server (e.g. uploading a Web page file to a server).
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) :

 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is used to copy a file without the need for all the
functions of the FTP protocol.

 For example, when a diskless computer is booted we need to download files from servers.
So at that time we do not need all the sophistication problems solution provided by FTP. We
just require protocol to copy file from one computer to another.

 Reading file in TFTP means copying file from the server site to the client site.

 Writing file in TFTP means copying file from the client site to the server site.

 TFTP is less powerful than FTP.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) :

 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) provides a set of fundamental operations for
monitoring and maintaining devices in the internet.

Terminal Network (TELNET) :

 TELNET is a general purpose client server applications program used for remote login.
 2.4 Comparison of the osi and tcp/ip Reference Model
Text Book Name : Forouzen : Page No : 29 to 45, Ref. Book Name : A. S. Tanenbaum

OSI Reference Model TCP / IP Reference Model

1 OSI model developed after TCP / IP Model 1 TCP / IP model developed before OSI model

2 OSI model has seven layers 2 TCP / IP model has five layers

3 OSI model is protocol independent standard 3 TCP / IP model is protocol dependent standard

4 OSI model clearly differentiate between 4 TCP / IP model did not clearly differentiate

Services, Interfaces and Protocol between Services, Interfaces and Protocol

 OSI Reference Model TCP / IP Reference Model

5 OSI model supports both connectionless and 5 TCP / IP model supports connectionless
connection oriented communication in the communication in the network layer but both
Network layer but only connection oriented connectionless and connection-oriented
communication in the transport layer communication in the transport layer

6 OSI model does not supports Internetworking 6 TCP / IP model supports Internetworking

7 All the packets are reliably delivered 7 TCP reliably delivers the packets, IP does not
reliably deliver packets

8 Less Credible (Reliable) 8 More Credible (Reliable)