Computer Organization and

Architecture (ECE-2002)
Course Objectives
⮚ Introduction and overview of basic computer organization. Computer
arithmetic: binary, hexadecimal and decimal number conversions,
binary number arithmetic and IEEE binary floating point number
standard.
⮚ To learn basic computer logic: gates, combinational circuits,
sequential circuits, adders, ALU, SRAM and DRAM.
⮚ To learn basic assembly language programming, basic Instruction Set
Architecture (ISA), and the design of single cycle CPU.

04-02-2023
Outcomes Expected
⮚ Apply different formats of data representation and number systems
⮚ Use Boolean algebra as related to designing computer logic, including
solving Karnaugh maps
⮚ Design and evaluate combinational and sequential logic circuits with
multiple inputs and outputs
⮚ Design simple combinational and sequential logic circuits, using a small
number of logic gates
⮚ Assemble a simple computer with hardware design including data format,
instruction format, instruction set, addressing modes, bus structure,
input/output, memory, Arithmetic/Logic unit, control unit, and data,
instruction and address flow
⮚ Design simple assembly language programs that make appropriate use of a
registers and memory
04-02-2023
Module 1: Computer evolution and
arithmetic
⮚ A Brief History of computers
⮚ Basic structures of Computers: Computer Architecture vs. Computer
Organization
⮚ Functional units and Operational concepts
⮚ Registers
⮚ Bus and Bus organization
⮚ Memory location and addresses
⮚ Fixed and Floating point numbers, Signed numbers, Integer Arithmetic
⮚ 2’s Complement method for multiplication
⮚ Booths Algorithm, Hardware Implementation
⮚ Division, Restoring and Non Restoring algorithms
04-02-2023
Module 2: the central processing unit
⮚ Basic Processing Units: Fundamental concepts
⮚ Instruction format
⮚ Instruction set
⮚ Addressing modes
⮚ Instruction Sequencing
⮚ Execution cycle
⮚ Hardwired control
⮚ Micro programmed control

04-02-2023
Module 3: Memory Organization
⮚ Memory System: Basic Concepts
⮚ Memory hierarchy
⮚ Main Memory
⮚ Secondary storage
⮚ Cache memory

04-02-2023
Module 4: ALU
⮚ Arithmetic: Addition and Subtraction of signed and unsigned numbers
⮚ Multiplication of signed and unsigned numbers
⮚ Booth Multiplier
⮚ Array Multiplier
⮚ Integer Division
⮚ Floating- point Numbers and operations

04-02-2023
Module 5: I/O Organization

⮚ Microprocessors
⮚ Instruction set
⮚ Assembly Language Programming
⮚ Stack
⮚ Subroutine
⮚ Interrupt
⮚ Accessing I/O devices
⮚ Standard I/O Interfaces- RS-232C, IEEE-488, USB
⮚ Data Transfer techniques
04-02-2023
Module 6: parallel organization

⮚ Instruction level pipelining and Superscalar Processors

⮚ Multiple Processor Organizations
⮚ Closely and Loosely coupled multiprocessors systems
⮚ Symmetric Multiprocessors
⮚ Clusters
⮚ UMA NUMA
⮚ Vector Computations
⮚ RISC: Instruction execution characteristics
⮚ RISC architecture and pipelining
⮚ RISC Vs CISC
04-02-2023
Textbooks and reference books
1. M. Morris Mano, Rajib Mall, Computer System Architecture,
Pearson Education Third Edition,2017

2. William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture: Designing

for Performance, Pearson Education, Tenth Edition,2013.
3. Carl Hamacher, Zvonkovranesic, Safwat Zaky , Computer
Organization, McGraw Hill, Fifth Edition,2011.

04-02-2023
Course evaluation
• Practice Tests - Cumulative for 16 Weeks 20%
• Continuous Assessment Test-1 15%
• Continuous Assessment Test-2 15%
• Continuous Assessment Test-3 20%
• Practical Assessment (Mini Project) 20%

04-02-2023
Computer
⮚ CPU
• Performs arithmetic and logical operations
⮚ INPUT-OUTPUT devices (PERIPHERALS)
• Keyboards, monitor, modem, mouse, joystick, speaker, printer, etc
⮚ MEMORY
• Primary-Directly accessible by the CPU
• Secondary-external memory for storing

04-02-2023
A typical Computer
• 1. Processor
• 2. RAM/Main memory
• 3. Hard disk
• 4. Keyboard
• 5. Mouse
• 6. Power supply
• 7. Motherboard
• 8. Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
• 9. Monitor
04-02-2023
Computer Diagram

04-02-2023
 Computer Organization and
Architecture (ECE-2002)

04-02-2023
Evolution of computers
• First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
• Second Generation: Transistors
• Third Generation: Integrated circuits
• Later generations: LSI and VLSI

An IBM computer vacuum tube assembly from

the 1950's

Vacuum tubes
04-02-2023
First Gen: Vacuum tubes

⮚ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

⮚ Built in 1943 for WW-II
⮚ Weighed 30 tons, occupying 1500 square feet of floor space, and
containing more than 18,000 vacuum tubes
⮚ Consumed 140 kilowatts of power
⮚ Faster than any electromechanical computer, capable of 5000
additions per second

04-02-2023
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC)
⮚ It was a decimal computer, rather than a binary one
⮚ Its memory consisted of 20 “accumulators,” each capable of holding a
10-digit decimal number
⮚ A ring of 10 vacuum tubes represented each digit
⮚ The major drawback is that it had to be programmed manually by
setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables

04-02-2023
VON Neumann machine
⮚ Program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside
the data
⮚ A computer could get its instructions by reading them from memory
⮚ This program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion of memory
⮚ This idea, known as the stored-program concept, usually attributed to
the mathematician John von Neumann
⮚ Shortly, the design of a new stored program computer, referred to as the Institute
for Advanced Study (IAS) computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced
Studies
⮚ Took 6 Years to build and is the prototype for all the subsequent general-purpose
computers

04-02-2023
 Institute for Advanced Study
(IAS) Computer-USA

⮚ A main memory, which stores both data and instructions

⮚ An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary
data
⮚ A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and
causes them to be executed
⮚ Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit
04-02-2023
 Working of IAS
⮚ The memory of the IAS consists of 1000 storage locations, called
words, of 40 binary digits (bits) each.
⮚ Both data and instructions are stored there.
⮚ Numbers are represented in binary form, and each instruction is a
binary code.
⮚ Each number is represented by a sign bit and a 39-bit value.
⮚ A word may also contain two 20-bit instructions, with each instruction
consisting of an 8-bit operation code (opcode) specifying the
operation to be performed and a 12-bit address designating one of
the words in memory (numbered from 0 to 999).
04-02-2023
EXAMPLE

04-02-2023
Registers in IAS
⮚ Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent
to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit.
⮚ Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address in memory of the word
to be written from or read into the MBR.
⮚ Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed.
⮚ Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right hand
instruction from a word in memory.
⮚ Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction-pair to be
fetched from memory.
⮚ Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily
operands and results of ALU operations.
04-02-2023
Expanded view of IAS

04-02-2023
Second GEN: Transistors
⮚ Invented at Bell Labs in 1947; by 1950s 🡪 electronic revolution.
⮚ Late 1950s 🡪 fully transistorized computers were commercially
available
⮚ Smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less heat; can be used in the same
way as a vacuum tube to construct computers
⮚ The second generation introduced more complex ALUs and CUs
⮚ Use of high-level programming languages, and system software with
the computer.

04-02-2023
04-02-2023
04-02-2023
• The diagram represents the configuration of the IBM 7094, which is a mainframe computer
architecture. The layout demonstrates the connectivity and data flow between the central
processing unit (CPU), memory, multiplexor, data channels, and peripheral devices.

• Key Components and Their Roles:

1. CPU (Central Processing Unit):
1. The core processing unit responsible for executing instructions and managing overall system operations.
2. Memory:
1. Provides the primary storage for instructions and data that the CPU processes.
3. Multiplexor:
1. Acts as a central hub that connects the CPU and memory to multiple data channels.
2. Enables efficient sharing of system resources and handles simultaneous communication.
•Data Channels:
•Dedicated pathways for transferring data between the multiplexor and peripheral devices.
•Each channel can manage a specific set of devices, ensuring effective input/output (I/O) operations.
•Peripheral Devices:
•Represent various I/O units connected to the system via data channels. These include:
•Mag Tape Units: For storing data on magnetic tape.
•Card Punch: Used to punch data into punched cards.
•Line Printer: Outputs printed data.
•Card Reader: Reads data from punched cards.
•Drum: A type of early computer storage device.
•Disk: For data storage.
•Hyper Tapes: Likely refers to high-speed data tapes.
•Teleprocessing Equipment: Manages communication and data processing for remote
terminals.
Third gen: Integrated circuits
⮚ A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component
⮚ 1950s to early 1960s, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete
components—transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on.
⮚ Discrete components were manufactured separately 🡪 packaged in their own
containers soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards 🡪 then
installed in computers, oscilloscopes, and other electronic equipment.
⮚ Whenever an electronic device needed a transistor replacement, a small piece of
silicon had to be soldered to a circuit board; made the manufacturing process
expensive and cumbersome.
⮚ The Early second-generation computers contained about 10,000 transistors. This
figure grew to the hundreds of thousands; manufacturing of newer, more
powerful machines became increasingly difficult.
04-02-2023
Third gen: Integrated circuits

⮚ 1958 🡪 invention of the Integrated circuit

⮚ The integrated circuit exploits the fact that 🡪
components as transistors, resistors, and conductors
can be fabricated from a semiconductor such as
silicon.
⮚ Fabrication of an entire circuit in a tiny piece of
silicon; rather than assemble discrete components
using separate pieces of silicon
⮚ Many transistors can be produced at the same time
on a single wafer of silicon; and can be connected
with a process of metallization to form circuits
04-02-2023
Integrated circuits
⮚ Initially, only a few gates or
memory cells could be reliably
manufactured and packaged
together; known as SSI
⮚ As time went on, it became
possible to pack more and more
components on the same chip.

Moore’s Law (Gordon Moore, co-founder of

Intel): the number of transistors per square
inch on integrated circuits had doubled every
year since the integrated circuit was invented.

04-02-2023
Integrated circuits
⮚ Moore observed that the #Transistors was doubling every year; correctly
predicted that this pace would continue
⮚ The pace continued year after year and decade after decade; it slowed to a
doubling every 18 months in the 1970s but has sustained that rate ever since
⮚ Consequences of Moore’s law:
⮚ The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged during this period of rapid growth
in density. This means that the cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen
at a dramatic rate.
⮚ Because logic and memory elements are placed closer together on more densely
packed chips, the electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed.
⮚ The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety of
environments.
⮚ There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
⮚ The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than solder
connections. With more circuitry on each chip, there are fewer interchip connections
04-02-2023
Later generations

04-02-2023
Later generations
⮚ With the introduction of largescale integration (LSI), more than 1000
components can be placed on a single integrated circuit chip.
⮚ Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) achieved more than 10,000
components per chip, while current ultra-large-scale integration
(ULSI) chips can contain more than one million components.
⮚ The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was
construction of the processor
⮚ It was also found that this same technology could be used to
construct memories

04-02-2023
Later generations
⮚ In the 1950s and 1960s, most computer memory was constructed
from tiny rings of ferromagnetic materials
⮚ Magnetized one way, a ring (called a core) represented a one;
magnetized the other way, it stood for a zero.
⮚ Magnetic-core memory was rather fast; it took as little as a millionth
of a second to read a bit stored in memory.
⮚ But it was expensive, bulky, and used destructive readout: The simple
act of reading a core erased the data stored in it.
⮚ It was therefore necessary to install circuits to restore the data as
soon as it had been extracted.
04-02-2023
• How It Worked:
1. Construction:
1. Memory was built using tiny rings made of ferromagnetic material, known as cores.
2. Each core was threaded with wires that allowed it to be magnetized in one of two
directions.
2. Binary Representation:
1. The magnetization direction of a core represented a binary value:
1. One direction = "1"
2. Opposite direction = "0"
3. Fast Access:
1. Magnetic-core memory was relatively fast for its time, capable of reading or writing
data within a microsecond (one millionth of a second
Later generations
⮚ Then, in 1970, Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor
memory.
⮚ This chip, about the size of a single core, could hold 256 bits of memory.
⮚ It was nondestructive and much faster than core. It took only 70 billionths of a
second to read a bit.
⮚ However, the cost per bit was higher than for that of core
⮚ In 1974, the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per
bit of core memory.
⮚ Following this, there has been a continuing and rapid decline in memory cost
accompanied by a corresponding increase in physical memory density.
⮚ This has led the way to smaller, faster machines with memory sizes of larger and
more expensive machines from just a few years earlier.
⮚ Developments in memory technology, together with developments in processor
technology changed the nature of computers in less than a decade.
04-02-2023
Microprocessors
⮚ A breakthrough was achieved in 1971, when Intel developed its 4004.
⮚ The 4004 was the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a
single chip: The microprocessor was born.
⮚ The 4004 can add two 4-bit numbers and can multiply only by repeated
addition.
⮚ By today’s standards, the 4004 is hopelessly primitive, but it marked the
beginning of a continuing evolution of microprocessor capability and power.
⮚ The next major step in the evolution of the microprocessor was the
introduction in 1972 of the Intel 8008.
⮚ This was the first 8-bit microprocessor and was almost twice as complex as
the 4004.
04-02-2023
Microprocessors
⮚ The introduction in 1974 of the Intel 8080.
⮚ This was the first general-purpose microprocessor.
⮚ The 4004 and the 8008 had been designed for specific applications,
the 8080 was designed to be the CPU of a general-purpose
microcomputer.
⮚ Like the 8008, the 8080 is an 8-bit microprocessor.
⮚ The 8080, however, is faster, has a richer instruction set, and has a
large addressing capability.

04-02-2023
Microprocessors
⮚ About the same time, 16-bit microprocessors began to be developed.
⮚ However, it was not until the end of the 1970s that powerful, general-
purpose 16-bit microprocessors appeared. One of these was the 8086.
⮚ The next step in this trend occurred in 1981, when both Bell Labs and
Hewlett-Packard developed 32-bit, single-chip microprocessors.
⮚ Intel introduced its own 32-bit microprocessor, the 80386, in 1985

04-02-2023
04-02-2023
04-02-2023
 Performance Assessment
❖ Performance is one of the key parameters to consider, along with cost, size, security, reliability, and, in some cases
power consumption.
❖ Application performance depends not just on the raw speed of the processor, but on the instruction set, choice of
implementation language, efficiency of the compiler, and skill of the programming.
❖ Clock Speed
⮚ The System Clock: The most fundamental level, the speed of a processor is dictated by the pulse frequency
produced by the clock, measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
⮚ Clock signals are generated by a quartz crystal
⮚ The rate of pulses is known as the clock rate, or clock speed
⮚ One increment, or pulse, of the clock is referred to as a clock cycle, or a clock tick.
⮚ The time between pulses is the cycle time.
⮚ For example, a 1-GHz processor receives 1 billion pulses per second.

04-02-2023
 Performance Assessment
❖ Millions of instructions per second (MIPS) or MIPS rate
⮚ The System Clock: The most fundamental level, the speed of a processor is dictated by the pulse frequency
produced by the clock, measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).

CPI: Cycle per instruction

f: Clock frequency (number of cycle per second)
Example: Consider a program has 2 Millions (2x106 instructions) is running on a 400 MHz processor. The
program consists of three major types of instructions, ALU related, load/store, and branching. These instruction
requires 1, 2, and 4 CPI with a instruction mix of 60, 30, and 10% respectively in the program. Estimate the
MIPS of the processor.
Solution: Average CPI=0.6x1+0.3x2+0.1x4=1.6
MIPS=(400x106)/(1.6x106)=250 MIPS
⮚ Similarly there are other performance parameters.

04-02-2023