The Physical Layer

The Physical Layer

 It is the bottom most layer in OSI reference model.
 It defines the electrical, timing and other interfaces by which bits are sent as
signals over the channel.

Transmission Media
 The purpose of the physical layer is to transport a raw bit stream from one
machine to another.
 Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
 Two types of Media : 1. Guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics.
2. Unguided media, such as radio and lasers through the air
Guided Transmission Media :
1. Magnetic Media :
One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to
write them onto magnetic tape or removable media (e.g., recordable DVDs), physically
transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them back in again.
2. Twisted Pair :
 One of the oldest and still most common transmission media is twisted pair.
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
 Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.
 When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire
radiates less effectively.
 Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital signals.
Guided Transmission Media :
 When many twisted pairs run in parallel for a substantial distance, such as all the wires
coming from an apartment building to the telephone company office, they are bundled
together and encased in a protective sheath. The pairs in these bundles would interfere
with one another if it were not for the twisting.

Advantages :
1. Twisted pair can run several kilometers without amplification.
2. Adequate performance.
3. Low cost.
Disadvantages :
1. For longer distances, repeaters are needed.
Application:
common application of the twisted pair is the telephone system. Nearly all
telephones are connected to the telephone company office by a twisted pair.
3. Coaxial Cable :
As covered in First Sessional.
4. Fiber Optic Cable :
As covered in First Sessional.
Communication Satellites :
 The key difference between an artificial satellite and a real one is that the artificial one
can amplify the signals before sending them back.
 In its simplest form, a communication satellite can be thought of as a big microwave
repeater in the sky.
 It contains several transponders, each of which listens to some portion of the spectrum,
amplifies the incoming signal, and then rebroadcasts it at another frequency to avoid
interference with the incoming signal.
 The downward beams can be broad, covering a substantial fraction of the earth's
surface, or narrow, covering an area only hundreds of kilometers in diameter.
5. Geostationary Satellites :
As covered in First Sessional.
 Switching :
 Every time in computer network you access the internet or another computer network
outside your immediate location, your messages are sent through a maze of transmission
media and connection devices. The mechanism for moving information between different
computer network and network segment is called switching in computer network.
Three different switching techniques:
1. Circuit switching
2. Message switching
3. Packet switching.
Circuit switching is a hardware switching method while packet and message switching are
software switching methods. Circuit switching is related with physical layer and packet
switching is related with network layer.
 Circuit Switching :
 When computer transmits data, the switching equipment within the telephone system
seeks out a physical path all the way from your computer to the receiver's computer. This
technique is called circuit switching.
 In the following diagram, each of the six rectangles represents a carrier switching office.
 In this example, each office has three incoming lines and three outgoing lines.
 When a call passes through a switching office, a physical connection is established
between the line on which the call came in and one of the output lines, as shown by the
dotted lines.
 The model shown in this figure is highly simplified. Practically, Parts of the physical path
between the transmitter and receiver may be microwave or fiber links onto which
thousands of calls are multiplexed.
Once a path has been set up, it will work as a dedicated path between both ends and will
continue to exist until the data transmission is finished.
An important property of circuit switching is the need to set up an end-to-end path before
any data can be sent, so, before data transmission can even begin, the request signal must
propagate all the way to the destination and be acknowledged.
And once the setup has been completed, the only delay for data is the propagation time for
the electromagnetic signal.
All the packets of the message follow this dedicated path.
There is no danger of congestion.
The network congestion means a link or node is carrying so much data that its quality of
service deteriorates.
• Circuit switching is when a dedicated channel or circuit needs to be established before users
can speak to each other on a call. A channel used in circuit switching is kept reserved at all
times and is used once the two users communicate.
 Packet Switching :
 The Alternative to circuit switching is packet switching.
 With this technology, no dedicated path being set up in advance.
 It is up to each packet to find its way to the destination on its own.
 Circuit switching may require long set up time for many computer applications long
setup times are undesirable, so they use packet switching instead of circuit switching.
Packet-switching networks place a tight upper limit on block size, so that no user
can monopolize any transmission line very long, packet-switching networks are
well suited for handling interactive traffic.

It allows packets to be buffered in router main memory instead of on disk.

In packet switching, the first packet of a multi packet message can be
forwarded before the second one has fully arrived, reducing delay and improving
throughput.

For these reasons, computer networks are usually packet switched, occasionally
circuit switched.
Difference between Circuit switching and Packet switching :
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
1. Circuit switching requires that a circuit be set up end to 1. While packet switching does not require any advance
end before actual communication begins. setup. The first packet can just be sent as soon as it is
available.
2. The result of the connection setup with circuit switching 2. With packet switching there is no path, so different
is the reservation of bandwidth all the way from the sender packets can follow different paths, depending on network
to the receiver. All packets follow this path. So, they conditions at the time they are sent. They may arrive out of
cannot arrive out of order. order.

3. Circuit switching is less fault tolerant than Packet 3. Packet switching is more fault tolerant than circuit
switching. If a switch goes down, all of the circuits using it switching. With packet switching, packets can be routed
are terminated and no more traffic can be sent on any of through another path.
them.

4. In circuit switching, the path is setup in advance, means 4. With packet switching, no bandwidth is reserved, so
it reserves the bandwidth in advance. If bandwidth is packets may have to wait their turn to be forwarded.
reserved, then when a packet arrives, it can be sent out
immediately over the reserved bandwidth.

5. In circuit switching, bandwidth is reserved in advance so, 5. But when an attempt is made to establish a circuit, the
no congestion can occur when a packet comes up. attempt can fail due to congestion.
Difference between Circuit switching and Packet switching :
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
6. Congestion can occur at different times with circuit 6. Congestion can occur with packet switching (when
switching (at setup time) packets are sent).
7. In circuit switching, if a circuit has been reserved for a 7. Packet switching does not waste bandwidth and thus is
particular user and there is no traffic to send, the more efficient from a system-wide perspective.
bandwidth of that circuit is wasted. It cannot be used for
other traffic.

8. circuit switching, the bits just flow through the wire 8. Packet switching uses store-and-forward transmission. A
continuously, so no delays are there. packet is accumulated in a router's memory, then sent on
to the next router. This can add delay in transmission.
9. Another difference is that circuit switching is completely 9. With packet switching, the carrier determines the basic
transparent. The sender and receiver can use any bit rate, parameters. It is this transparency that allows voice, data,
format, or framing method they want to. The carrier and fax to coexist within the phone system.
does not know or care.

10. With circuit switching, charging is based on distance 10. With packet switching, connect time is not an issue, but
and time. the volume of traffic is.
 Message Switching :
 Message switching was a technique developed as an alternative to circuit switching
before packet switching was introduced.
 In message switching, end-users communicate by sending and receiving messages that
included the entire data to be shared.
 Messages are the smallest individual unit. Also, the sender and receiver are not directly
connected.
 There are a number of intermediate nodes that transfer data and ensure that the
message reaches its destination. Message switched data networks are hence called hop-
by-hop systems.
 Message Switching :
 There are 2 distinct and important characteristics:
 Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring
the entire message to the next node. Hence, each node must have storage capacity.
A message will only be delivered if the next hop and the link connecting it are both
available, otherwise, it’ll be stored indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch forwards
a message only if sufficient resources are available and the next hop is accepting
data. This is called the store-and-forward property.
 Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single
message and transferring it from the source to the destination node. Each message
must have a header that contains the message routing information, including the
source and destination.
 PSTN :
 When two computers by the same company or organization and located close to
each other need to communicate, it is often easiest just to run a cable between
them.
 LANs work this way.
 However, when the distances are large or there are many computers or
the cables to pass through a public road or other public right of way, the
costs of running private cables are usually prohibitive.
 These facilities, especially the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network), were usually designed many years ago, with a completely
different goal in mind: transmitting the human voice in a more-or-less
recognizable form.
Structure of the Telephone System :
 Soon after computers by the same company or organization and located close to
each other need to communicate, it is often easiest just to run a cable between
them.
Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone in 1876 there was an enormous
demand for his new invention.
The initial market was for the sale of telephones, which came in pairs. It was up to
the customer to string a single wire between them.
If a telephone owner wanted to talk to n other telephone owners, separate wires
had to be strung to all n houses.
Within a year, the cities were covered with wires passing over houses and trees in a
wild jumble. It became immediately obvious that the model of connecting every
telephone to every other telephone
Structure of the Telephone System :

a) Fully-interconnected network. (b) Centralized switch. (c) Two-level hierarchy.

Structure of the Telephone System :
 Bell formed the Bell Telephone company.
Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone in 1876 there was an enormous
demand for his new invention.
 The company ran a wire to each customer’s house or office.
 To make a call, the customer would crank the phone to make a ringing sound in the
telephone company office to attract of an operator, who would then manually
connect the caller to the callee by using a jumper cable.
 Bell System switching offices were springing up everywhere and people wanted to
make long distance calls between cities, so the Bell system began to connect the
switching offices.
 The original problem soon returned : to connect every switching office to every
other switching office by means of a wire between them quickly became
unmanageable, so second-level switching offices were invented.
Structure of the Telephone System :

 If a subscriber attached to a given end office calls another subscriber attached to

the same end office, the switching mechanism within the office sets up a direct
electrical connection between the two local loops.
 This connection remains intact for the duration of the call.
Structure of the Telephone System :

• If the called telephone is attached to another end office, a different procedure has
to be used. Each end office has a number of outgoing lines to one or more nearby
switching centers, called toll offices (or if they are within the same local area,
tandem offices). These lines are called toll connecting trunks.
• If both the caller's and callee's end offices happen to have a toll connecting trunk
to the same toll office (a likely occurrence if they are relatively close by), the
connection may be established within the toll office.

In summary, the telephone system consists of three major components:

1. Local loops (analog twisted pairs going into houses and businesses).
2. Trunks (digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices).
3. Switching offices (where calls are moved from one trunk to another).
Structure of the Telephone System :
Modem :
Modem :
 Modem is a hardware networking device that helps to make connection with computer
or other hardware components like as switch or router for linking to internet.
 Modems are used for performing both activities like as sending and receiving of the
digital data in between with multiple computer systems.
 Then this data is transmitted over the telephone lines with using V.92, to analog
modems which helping out for converting those signals back to digital form for
readable format to computer.
 Modem plays role as digital translator that helps to get all information signals from
cable, fiber or telephone line and convert it into accessible form for your PCs.
Types of Modem :
1. Dial-up Internet access:
 It is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of the public switched telephone
network (PSTN) to establish a connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) by
dialing a telephone number on a conventional telephone line.
 Dial-up connections use modems to decode audio signals into data to send to a router
or computer, and to encode signals from the latter two devices to send to another
modem.
2. ISDN modems:
 ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is a circuit-switched telephone network system
that transmits both data and voice over a digital line.
 You can also think of it as a set of communication standards to transmit data, voice, and
signaling.
 These digital lines could be copper lines. It was designed to move outdated landline
technology to digital.
 ISDN connections have a reputation for providing better speeds and higher quality than
traditional connections. Faster speeds and better connections allow data transmission to
travel more reliably.
3. DSL modem:
 A modem router is a combination device that functions as both modem and router.
 You usually need a modem and a router to connect to the ISP and provides internet to other
devices.
 A DSL modem router has both built into one box. DSL is an initialism for “Digital Subscriber
Line”, which is a technology that enables high-speed data transmission on ordinary twisted-
pair telephone lines.
 In short, a DSL modem router converts the DSL Line to an Ethernet connection and shares
the wireless network directly.
4. Cable Television modem:
 5. Fiber optic modem:

 A Fiber optic modem (FOM) acts as a connecting interface between an electronic

device and an internet network.
 These modems are different than regular DSL modems because the signal transmission
is not via copper cables. It uses a fiber optic cable network to transmit signals.
 The working of a fiber optic modem is quite simple. The following pointers will help
you understand it better.

 The Internet signal transmitted via fiber optic cables to the fiber optic modems.
 The modem transforms the internet signals into electronic data.
 This transmission is a full-duplex transmission. That means the data can be
transmitted from the internet source to the electronic device and vice versa.
 The Mobile Telephone System – overview of 1G, 2G and 3G, 4G and 5G

Mobile Communication is the use of technology that allows us to communicate with others in different locations
without the use of any physical connection (wires or cables). Mobile communication makes our life easier, and it saves
time and effort.
A mobile phone (also called mobile cellular network, cell phone or hand phone) is an example of mobile
communication (wireless communication). It is an electric device used for full duplex two way radio telecommunication
over a cellular network.

First Generation (1G) Technology

 In this generation of technology, mobile communication is done only through an analog
signal that has been used to transmit the user data.
 1G technology was primarily used and designed for voice communication purposes.
 Simple circuit switching process was used.
 No encryption thus security was very low.
 FDMA was used (Frequency division multiplexing).
 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps
 Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
The Mobile Telephone System – overview of 1G, 2G and 3G, 4G and 5G

Second Generation (2G) Technology

 First time introduction of digital data

 Mobile phones in this generation were capable of transmitting audio and video.
 speed is limited to 64kbps
 SMS and MMS were introduced
 Popular as GSM(Global system for mobile communication)
 Data speeds up to 64 kbps
 Text and multimedia messaging possible

 Better quality than 1G GPRS(2.5 G) and EDGE(2.75 G)

 GPRS(Global Packet radio service) was an added
feature.
 Transmitting more data
The Mobile Telephone System – overview of 1G, 2G and 3G, 4G and 5G

Third Generation (3G) Technology

 The first 3G services were available in 1998.

 It provides high speed transmission having data transfer rate more than 0.2Mbps.
 Global roaming services are available for both voice and data.
 It offers advanced multimedia access like playing music, viewing videos, television services
etc.
 It provides access to all advanced Internet services, for example surfing webpages with
audio and video.
 It paved the way for the increased usage of smartphones with wide screens as they
provided better viewing of mobile webpages, videos and mobile televisions.
The Mobile Telephone System – overview of 1G, 2G and 3G, 4G and 5G

Fourth Generation (4G) Technology

 After the 3G transition, the next evolution took place with the introduction of mobile
broadband and mobile data
 The network speed in 4G has been increased up to 100Mpbs.
 This technology made possible some of the things such as high-speed gaming, High-
definition Mobile Television, Digital Streaming, HD Television services, Cloud computing, etc.
 4G offers faster data speeds at lower prices
 Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV
 Cloud computing
 IP telephony (Internet Protocol telephony) use the Internet Protocol's
packet-switched connections
 Traditionally, these communications have been carried over the
dedicated circuit- switched connections of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
 Using the internet, calls travel as packets of data on shared lines,
avoiding the tolls of PSTN.
 IP telephony works by converting voice calls, faxes and other
information into digital signals.
 These digital signals travel through IP networks, such as the internet, as
data packets, using IP packet-switched connections
Fifth Generation (5G) Technology

 5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra low latency, more
reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more uniform user experience to more users.
 In computer networking, latency is an expression of how much time it takes for a data packet to travel
from one designated point to another.
 High speed in addition to Artificial Intelligence.
 5G high bands (mmWave, also referred to as FR2) are found in the range of 24GHz to 40GHz.
 They deliver large quantities of spectrum and capacity over the shortest distances.