THEORY

OF
COMPUTATION

1
 Introduction

•Finite Automata accept all regular languages and only

regular languages

•Many simple languages are non regular:

- {anbn : n = 0, 1, 2, …}
- {w : w is palindrome}

and there is no finite automata that accepts them.

• context-free languages are a larger class of languages that encompasses all regular
languages and many others, including the two above.
 Context-Free Grammars

• Languages that are generated by context-free grammars are context-free

languages

• Context-free grammars are more expressive than finite automata: if a language

L is accepted by a finite automata then L can be generated by a context-free
grammar
• Beware: The converse is NOT true
 Context Free
•Grammar
A more powerful method of describing language.
• It can describe certain features that have a recursive
structure.
• An important application of context free grammar occurs
in
specification and compilation of programming languages.
• The collection of languages associated with context free
grammar (CFG) are called context free languages
(CFL).
• Context free grammar is a language generator on some
set of rules.
• e.g.
• A -> 0A1
• A->B
• B-># 4
 Context Free
•Grammar
Grammar consists of collection of substitution
rules called production.
• Each rule comprise a symbol and string separated by
arrow.
• Symbol is called variable.
• Strings that consists of variables and other symbols
are called terminals.
• One variable is start variable that usually occurs on the
left hand
side of the topmost rule.
• For given example: grammar contains 3 rules. Variables
are A and B. Terminals are 0, 1, #. A is a start variable.

5
 Context Free
•Grammar
Above grammar can generate string 000#111
as follows:
• A -> 0A1
• -> 00A11
• -> 000A111
• -> 000B111
• -> 000#111
• Formal definition:
• A context free grammar is a four tuple (V, ∑, R,S)
where
• V is a finite set called variable.
• ∑ is a finite set called terminal.
• R is a finite set of rules.
• S is a start variable as S ϵ V
6
 Context Free
•Grammar
Some terminologies:
• Derivation:
• Let G = (V, ∑, R, S) be a context free grammar. If w1 w2 …wn
are strings over variable V such that w1 =>w2 =>….=>wn
then we can say wn is derivable.
• The sequence of substitution to obtain a string is called
derivation. Say wi derives wn i.e. w1 =*> wn. Then, the
sequence of steps to obtain wn from wi is called derivation.
• Language of CFG (L(G)):
• If G = (V, ∑, R, S) be a CFG, then the language of G denoted
by L(G) is the set of terminal strings that have derivations
from start symbol.
• i.e. L(G) = { w ϵ ∑* : S =*> w }

7
Context-Free Grammar:
Alternative Definition
Definition. A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (∑, NT, R,
S), where:

• ∑ is an alphabet (each character in ∑ is called terminal)

• NT is a set (each element in NT is called nonterminal)
• R, the set of rules, is a subset of NT × (∑ ∪ NT)*

If (α,β) ∈ R, we write production α 🡪 β

β is called a sentential form

• S, the start symbol, is one of the symbols in NT
 Context Free
•Grammar
Some terminologies:
• Sentential form:
• Derivations from the start symbol produce
strings that have a special rule. This is
called sentential form.
• i.e. if G = (V, ∑, R, S) be a CFG and for any
string X, S *=> X is a sentential form.
• If S =*> X , then X is a
left sentential form. lm
• If S =*> X, then X is a
right sentential form.
rm
9
 Context Free • Consider a*E
•Grammar
Some terminologies: • E = > E*E
lm
• Sentential form: • => I*E
lm
• e.g. • => a*E
lm
• E -> I • So, a*E is a left sentential form.
• E - > E+E | E*E | (E) • Consider E*(E+E)
• I -> a | b | Ia | Ib | I0 | I1 • E = > E*E
• rm => E*(E)
• Now, E * (I + E) is a r
sentential form as there is a • m => E*(E+E)
r
derivation. m

• E => E*E • So, E*(E+E) is a right sentential

form.
• => E* (E)
• => E*(E+E)
• => E*(I+E)
1
0
 Context Free
•Grammar
e.g. Let G = (V, ∑, R, S)
where
• V = {S}
• ∑ = {a, b}
• R = { S -> aSb, S-> ab},
now find L(G)
• Solutions:
• 1. S => ab
• 2. S => aSb
•• =>
=> aabb
•aaSbb
3. S => aSb
• =>
Hence, language of given grammar is L(G)
• anbn = { anbn : n >= 1}
1
1
 Context Free
•Grammar
Question : Write a CFG • e.g.
for the language given aaaab
by L = {ambn : m>=n}. • Solution:
• Solutions: •• S => => aaSb
• V = {S} aSb
• => aaaSb
• ∑ = {a, b, ϵ} • => aaaaSb
• R = { S -> aSb, S-> aS, S- • => aaaa ϵ b
> ϵ}
• => aaaab
• S = {S}

1
2
 Context Free
•Grammar
Derivative Tree / Parse Tree:
• Is a tree representation of strings of terminals using the
productions
defined by the grammar.
• It pictorially shows how the start symbol of a grammar
derives a strings in language.
• Is an ordered tree that shows the essentials of a derivation.
• Formally, given CFG G = (V, ∑, R, S) , a parse tree has
following properties:
• The root is labeled by start symbol.
• Each interior nodes of parse tree are variables.
• Each leaf node is labeled by terminal symbol or ϵ .
• If an interior node is labeled with non-terminal A and its children are x 1 ,x2 ,….xn from
left to right then there is a production P as:
• A -> x1 x2 ………xn for each xi ϵ ∑
1
3
 Context Free
•Grammar
Derivative Tree / Parse Tree:
• e.g. consider a grammar where S - > aSa
|a|b|ϵ
Now, for string aabaa, we have
S => aSa
=> aaSaa
=> aabaa
Now, its parse tree is: S

a a

S
a
S
a

1
4
Derivation Trees

S →A|AB Other derivation trees for

A →ε|a|Ab|AA w = aabb this string?
B →b|bc|Bc|bB

S S
S ? ?
A
A B A B
A A Infinitely
A A b B A A b many others
A A A b possible.
a a b a A b
a ε A b
a
a
 Context Free
•Grammar
Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation:
• In leftmost derivation, leftmost variable is replaced
first.
• In rightmost derivation, rightmost variable is replaced
first.
• Consider a grammar:
S -> S + S
S ->
S/S S
-> (S)
S -> S
-S
S -> S x S
1
S -> a 6
Context Free
Grammar
Leftmost Derivation Rightmost
Derivation
S => S + S S => S + S
=> a + S => S + S/S
=> a + S/S => S + S/S–S
=> a + (S) / S => S + S/S–a
=> a + (S x S) / S => S + S/a–a
=> a + (a x S) / S => S + (S) / a –
a
=> a + (a x a) / S => S + (S x S) /
a–a
=> a + (a x a) / S => S + (S x a) /
–S a–a
=> a + (a x a) / a => S + (a x a) /
–S a–a 1
7
 Context Free
•Grammar
Parse tree
S

S + S

S S
a
- S
( /
)

SS x a
Sa
S
a a

1
8
 Parse Tree
A parse tree of a derivation is a tree in which:

• Each internal node is labeled with a nonterminal

• If a rule A 🡪 A1A2…An occurs in the derivation then A is a parent

node of nodes labeled A1, A2, …, An
S

a
S

a S
b
S

e
Parse Trees

S →A|AB Sample derivations:

A →ε|a|Ab|AA S ⇒ AB ⇒ AAB ⇒ aAB ⇒ aaB ⇒ aabB ⇒ aabb
B →b|bc|Bc|bB S ⇒ AB ⇒ AbB ⇒ Abb ⇒ AAbb ⇒ Aabb ⇒ aabb

These two derivations use same productions, but in different orders.

This ordering difference is often uninteresting.
Derivation trees give way to abstract away ordering differences.

S Root label = start node.

A B Each interior label = variable.

Each parent/child relation = derivation step.

A A b B
Each leaf label = terminal or ε.
a a b
All leaf labels together = derived string = yield.
 Ambiguous Grammar
Definition. A grammar G is ambiguous if there is a word w ∈ L(G) having
are least two different parse trees

S🡪A
S🡪B
S 🡪 AB
A 🡪 aA
B 🡪 bB
A🡪 e
B🡪e

Notice that a has at least two left-most derivations

Ambiguity
CFG ambiguous ⇔ any of following
equivalent statements:
∃ string w with multiple derivation trees.
∃ string w with multiple leftmost derivations.
∃ string w with multiple rightmost derivations.

Defining ambiguity of grammar, not

language.
 Context Free
•Grammar
Ambiguous Grammar: Now, for string aab , we have
• A grammar G = (V, ∑, R, S) is two left most derivation as:
said to be ambiguous if there is 1.S=>AB
a string wϵL(G) for which we =>AaB
can derive two or more distinct
=>aaB
derivation tree rooted at S and
yielding w. =>aab
• In other words, a grammar is 2.S=>a
ambiguous if it can produce aB
more
string than one rightmost
in language of =>aab
derivation
grammar. for same Parse
tree S
• e.g.
S
S -> AB / aaB B
A a a
A -> a / Aa
b
B -> b A B
a a
2
3
Ambiguity &
Disambiguation
Given an ambiguous grammar, would like
an equivalent unambiguous grammar.
Allows you to know more about structure of a given derivation.
Simplifies inductive proofs on derivations.
Can lead to more efficient parsing algorithms.
In programming languages, want to impose a canonical structure
on derivations. E.g., for 1+2×3.

Strategy: Force an ordering on all

derivations.
CFG Simplification
Can’t always eliminate ambiguity.

But, CFG simplification & restriction

still useful theoretically &
pragmatically.
Simpler grammars are easier to understand.
Simpler grammars can lead to faster parsing.
Restricted forms useful for some parsing algorithms.
Restricted forms can give you more knowledge about
derivations.
 CFG Simplification: Example
How can the following be simplified?

S → A B? ?
S→ACD 1) Delete: B useless because nothing derivable from B.
A→Aa
A→a
A→aA
A→a 2) Delete either A→Aa or A→aA.
C→ε 3) Delete one of the idential productions.
D→dD
4) Delete & also replace S→ACD with S→AD.
D→E
E→eAe 5) Replace with D→eAe.
F→ff 6) Delete: E useless after change #5.
7) Delete: F useless because not derivable from S.
 Context Free
•Grammar
Simplification of CFG:
• We must eliminate useless symbols.
• We must eliminate empty (ϵ) productions.
• We must eliminate unit productions.
• Eliminating useless symbols:
• Useless symbols are those variables or terminals that do not
appear in any
derivation of a terminal string from the start symbol.
• For a grammar G = (V, ∑, R, S) , a symbol y is useful, if
there is some derivation of the form S =*> XyZ.
• Elimination of useless symbols include identifying
whether or not the symbol is ‘generating ’ and
‘reachable’.
• A symbol x is generating if x =*> w for some terminal string
w. 2
7
Context Free
Grammar
• Eliminating useless symbols:
• e.g. consider a grammar
S -> aB | bX
A -> Bad |
bSX | a B ->
aSB | bBX
X -> SBd | aBX | ad
• Here, A and X can generate terminals so A and X are generating
symbols as A ->
a and X -> ad.
• Also S is generating symbol as S can generate terminal string
such as S -> bX and X generate terminal string.
• But B can’t produce any terminal symbol so it is non generating.
So, eliminate
B. Then we get
S -> bX
2
8
Context Free
Grammar
• Eliminating useless symbols:
• Again, A is unreachable as there is not any derivation of
form S => αAβ in
grammar. So, we eliminate A , then we get
X -> bX Hence, this is simplified grammar.
S ->
• Eliminating ad empty (ϵ) productions:
• A grammar is said to have empty production if there is a
production of the
form X -> ϵ.
• Here, we have to discover nullable variable.
• A variable X is nullable if X =*> ϵ.
• If X -> ϵ is a production to be eliminated then we look for all
productions whose right side contain X and replace each
occurrence of X in each of those production to obtain non
empty production.
• Now, those resultant non empty productions must be added to
2
grammar to keep the language generated be same. 9
 Context Free
•Grammar
Eliminating empty (ϵ) productions:
• e.g.
S -> aA
A -> b | ϵ
• Here, A -> ϵ so, A is nullable.
• Then, find all productions whose right side contains A. We
get, S -> aA
• Now, replace A with ϵ, We get S -> a
• Then
S -> add this resultant non empty production in grammar,
S -> aA
finally
aA A weOget, e.g.
|a A-
-> b R >b S ->
S -> ABAC
a A -> aA
| ϵ B ->
bB | ϵ C - 3
0
 Context Free
•Grammar
Eliminating unit productions:
• A unit production is a production of the form X -> Y , where
X and Y are
both variables.
• Algorithm:
while (there exists unit production X -> Y)
{
1.select a unit production X -> Y , such that
there exists a
production Y -> z, where z is terminal.
2. for (every non-unit
production , Y -> z) add
production X -> z to
grammar. 3
1
 Context Free
•Grammar
Eliminating unit • e.g
productions: . S ->
• e.g. AB
A -> A -> a
B B B -> C
-> a
|b C-
B -
>D
>c
D -> E
• Solution
E -> a
we have unit production A
-> B. there exists non
unit
productions B -> a and B -> c.
now add them to the grammar.
Finally we get,
A -> 3
2
 Context Free
•Grammar
Chomsky Normal Form (CNF):
• A CFG G = (V, ∑, R, S) is said to be in Chomsky
Normal Form (CNF) if every productions in G are
in one of the two forms:
Here,
• X -> X, Y and Z are
YZ variables. a is
terminal
• X ->
• So,
a a grammar in CNF is one which should
not have:
• Empty productions
• Unit productions
• Useless symbols
3
3
Context Free
Grammar
• Chomsky Normal Form (CNF):
• e.g. Convert the following CFG into CNF
G = (V, ∑, R, S) where
V = { S, A , B}
∑ = {a,
b} R =
{
S -> aAB | AaB | B
A -> aA | ϵ
B -> ab | bA
}
• Solution:
• To convert CFG into CNF , we have to
simplify CFG.
3
• In given grammar there are not any useless 4
Context Free
Grammar
• Chomsky Normal Form (CNF):
• Now, eliminating ϵ
production: S -> aAB |
AaB | aB | B
A -> aA | a
B -> ab | bA | b
• Again, eliminating unit
production:
S -> aAB | AaB | aB | ab |
bA | b
A -> aA | a
B -> ab | bA | b
• Now, Converting this simplified form to
get CNF: S -> CAB | ACB | CB | CD | DA |
b
C ->
3
a D 5
 Context Free
•Grammar
Chomsky Normal Form • e.g
(CNF): . S -> AAC
• Here , again S -> CAB and S -> A -> aAb
ACB are not in required form;
|ϵ
so, we can perform like:
C -> aC | a
S -> EB | FB | CB | CD |
DA | b E -> CA
F ->
AC C
-> a
D ->
b
A -> CA | a
3
B -> CD | DA | b 6
Linear grammar

A linear grammar is a context-free grammar

that has at most one non-terminal symbol on
the right hand side of each grammar rule.
A rule may have just terminal symbols on the right hand side
(zero non-terminals).
Here is a linear grammar:
S → aA
A → aBb
B → Bb

37
Left linear
grammar
A left linear grammar is a linear grammar in
which the non-terminal symbol always
occurs on the left side.
Here is a left linear grammar:

S → Aa
A → ab

38
Right linear
grammar
A right linear grammar is a linear grammar in
which the non-terminal symbol always occurs on
the right side.
Here is a right linear grammar:

S → abaA
A→ε

39
Left linear grammars are
evilConsider this rule from a left linear grammar:
A → Babc
Can that rule be used to recognize this string:
abbabc
We need to check the rule for B:
B → Cb | D
Now we need to check the rules for C and D.
This is very complicated.
Left linear grammars require complex parsers.

40
Right linear grammars are good

Consider this rule from a right linear grammar:

A → abcB
Can that rule be used to recognize this string:
abcabb
We immediately see that the first part of the
string – abc – matches the first part of the rule.
Thus, the problem simplifies to this: can the rule
for B be used to recognize this string :
abb
Parsers for right linear grammars are much
simpler.

41
Convert left linear to right
linear
Now we will see an algorithm for converting any
left linear grammar to its equivalent right linear
grammar.

left linear right linear

S → Aa S → abaA
A → ab A→ε
Both grammars generate this language: {aba}

42
May need to make a new start symbol

The algorithm on the following slides

assume that the left linear grammar
doesn’t have any rules with the start
symbol on the right hand side.
If the left linear grammar has a rule with the start
symbol S on the right hand side, simply add this
rule:
S0 → S

43
Symbols used by the algorithm
Let S denote the start symbol
Let A, B denote non-terminal symbols
Let p denote zero or more terminal
symbols
Let ε denote the empty symbol

44
Algorithm
1) If the left linear grammar has a rule S → p, then
make that a rule in the right linear grammar
2) If the left linear grammar has a rule A → p, then
add the following rule to the right linear
grammar:
S → pA
3) If the left linear grammar has a rule B → Ap,
add the following rule to the right linear
grammar:
A → pB
4) If the left linear grammar has a rule S → Ap,
then add the following rule to the right linear
grammar: 45
Convert this left linear
grammar
left linear

S → Aa
A → ab

46
Right hand side has
terminals
left linear right linear

S → Aa S → abA
A → ab

2) If the left linear grammar has this rule A → p, then add

the following rule to the right linear grammar: S → pA

47
Right hand side of S has non-terminal

left linear right linear

S → Aa S → abA
A → ab A→a

4) If the left linear grammar has S → Ap, then add the

following rule to the right linear grammar: A → p

48
Equivalent!

left linear right linear

S → Aa S → abA
A → ab A→a

Both grammars generate this language: {aba}

49
Convert this left linear
grammar
original grammar left linear

S → Ab S0 → S
S → Sb S → Ab
A → Aa make a new
start symbol S → Sb
A→a A → Aa
A→a

Convert this

50
Right hand side has
terminals
left linear right linear

S0 → S S0 → aA
S → Ab
S → Sb
A → Aa
A→a

2) If the left linear grammar has this rule A → p,

then add the following rule to the right linear
grammar: S → pA
51
Right hand side has non-
terminal
left linear right linear

S0 → S S0 → aA
S → Ab A → bS
S → Sb A → aA
A → Aa S → bS
A→a
3) If the left linear grammar has a rule B → Ap, add the
following rule to the right linear grammar: A → pB

52
Right hand side of start symbol has non terminal

left linear right linear

S0 → S S0 → aA
S → Ab A → bS
S → Sb A → aA
A → Aa S → bS
A→a S→ε

4) If the left linear grammar has S → Ap, then

add the following rule to the right linear
grammar: A → p
53
Equivalent!

left linear right linear

S0 → S S0 → aA
S → Ab A → bS
S → Sb A → aA
A → Aa S → bS
A→a S→ε

Both grammars generate this language: {a+b+}

54
Will the algorithm always work?

We have seen two examples where the algorithm

creates a right linear grammar that is equivalent
to the left linear grammar.
But will the algorithm always produce an
equivalent grammar?
Yes! The following slide shows why.

55
Regular Grammars Generate
Regular Languages

56
Theorem
Languages
Regular
Generated by
Languag
Regular
es
Grammars

57
 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Regular
Generated by
Languag
Regular
es
Grammars

Any regular grammar

generates
a regular language

58
 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Regular
Generated by
Languag
Regular
es
Grammars

Any regular language is

generated
by a regular grammar

59
Proof – Part 1
Languages
Regular
Generated by
Languag
Regular
es
Grammars

The language generated

by
any regular grammar is
regular
60
The case of Right-Linear
Grammars
Let be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: is regular

Proof idea: We will construct NFA with

61
Grammar G is right-linear
Exampl
e:

62
Construct NFA such that
every state is a grammar variable:

special
final
state

63
Add edges for each production:

64
65
66
67
68
69
NFA Gramm
ar

70
In General
A right-linear grammar

has variables:

and productions:

o
r

71
We construct the NFA such that:

each variable corresponds to a

node:

special
final
72
state
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate

nodes

……
…

73
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate

nodes

……
…

74
Resulting NFA looks like this:

It holds that: 75
The case of Left-Linear
Grammars
Let be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: is regular

Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
grammar with

76
Since is left-linear
grammar
the productions look like:

77
Construct right-linear grammar

In
:

In
:

78
Construct right-linear grammar

In
:

In
:
79
It is easy to see that:

Since is right-linear, we have:

Regular Regular Regular

Langua Langua Langua
ge ge ge
80
Proof - Part 2
Languages
Regular
Generated by
Languag
Regular
es
Grammars

Any regular language is

generated
by some regular grammar

81
Any regular language is
generated
by some regular grammar

Proof
idea:
Let be the NFA with .

Construct from a regular

grammar
such that
82
Since is regular
there is an NFA such that

Exampl
e:

83
Convert to a right-linear
grammar

84
85
86
87
In General
For any
transition:

Add
production:

variabl termin variabl

e al e 88
For any final
state:

Add
production:

89
Since is right-linear grammar

is also a regular grammar

with

90
Reverse of a Regular
Language

91
Theore
m:
The reverse of a regular
language
is a regular language

Proof
idea:
Construct NFA that accepts
:
invert the transitions of the
NFA
that accepts 92
Context Free
Grammar Proof
Since is regular,
there is NFA that
accepts

Exampl
e:

93
Context Free
Grammar
Invert
Transitions

94
Context Free Grammar

Make old initial state a final

state

95
Context Free Grammar

Add a new initial

state

96
Resulting machine
accepts

is
regular

97
Context Free
Grammar
• Left Recursion:
• A production of grammar is said to have left recursion if
the leftmost
variable of its RHS is same as variable of its LHS.
• e.g. S -> Sa | ϵ
• Elimination of left recursion
• left recursion is eliminated by converting the grammar into
right recursive grammar.
• if we have, A -> Aα | β
then, A -> βA’
i) A -> ABd | AaA’|a
-> αA’ | ϵ Solution: A -> aA’
e.g. Consider
B -> Be | b the following grammar andA’ ->eliminate left
BdA’ | aA’ | ϵrecursion
B -> bB’
B’ -> eB’ | ϵ

9
8
Context Free
Grammar
• Greibach Normal From (GNF):
• A CFG G = (V, ∑, R, S) is said to be in Greibach Normal Form
(GNF) if all the production of grammar are of the form:
A -> xα; where x is a terminal and α is string of zero or more
variables.
e.g. convert the following CFG
A
into->GNFaB S |-> AB | BC
bA | a B -> e.g. S -> abSb |
bC | cC | b aa
C -> c
Solutions:
here production S -> AB | BC is not in
required form. now, applying substitution
rule:
S -> aBB | bAB | aB | bCC | cCC| bC
A -> aB |
bA | a B ->
bC | cC | b 9
9
Unrestricted Grammars
An unrestricted grammar has essentially no
restrictions on the form of its productions:
• Any variables and terminals on the left side, in any order
• Any variables and terminals on the right side, in any order
• The only restriction is that λ is not allowed as the left side
of a production
A sample unrestricted grammar has productions
S → S1B
S1 → aS1b
bB → bbbB
aS1b → aa
B→λ
Context-Sensitive Grammars
• In a context-sensitive grammar, the only
restriction is that, for any production, length
of the right side is at least as large as the
length of the left side
• Example introduces a sample unrestricted
grammar with productions
S → abc | aAbc
Ab → bA
Ac → Bbcc
bB → Bb
aB → aa | aaA
Characteristics of Context-
Sensitive Grammars
• An important characteristic of context-sensitive grammars is
that they are noncontracting, in the sense that in any
derivation, the length of successive sentential forms can
never decrease
• These grammars are called context-sensitive because it is
possible to specify that variables may only be replaced in
certain contexts
• For instance, in the grammar of Example ,
S → abc | aAbc
Ab → bA
Ac → Bbcc
bB → Bb
aB → aa | aaA
variable A can only be replaced if it is followed by either b or c
 Context-Sensitive Languages
• A language L is context-sensitive if there is a context-sensitive
grammar G, such that either L = L(G) or L = L(G) ∪ { λ }
• The empty string is included, because by definition, a context-
sensitive grammar can never generate a language containing
the empty string
• As a result, it can be concluded that the family of context-free
languages is a subset of the family of context-sensitive
languages
• The language { anbncn: n ≥ 1 } is context-sensitive, since it is
generated by the grammar in Example
S → abc | aAbc
Ab → bA
Ac → Bbcc
bB → Bb
aB → aa | aaA
Derivation of Strings Using a
Context-Sensitive Grammar
Using the grammar in Example , we derive the string
aabbcc
S ⇒ aAbc
⇒ abAc
⇒ abBbcc
⇒ aBbbcc
⇒ aabbcc
The variables A and B are effectively used as
messengers:
an A is created on the left, travels to the right of the first c,
where it creates another b and c, as well as variable B
the newly created B is sent to the left in order to create the
corresponding a.
The Chomsky Hierarchy
The linguist Noam Chomsky
summarized the relationship
between language families by
classifying them into four
language types, type 0 to type 3
This classification, which
became known as the Chomsky
Hierarchy, is illustrated in
Figure .
Type-3: Regular Languages, Regular Expressions, DFAs, Regular Grammars
Type-2: CFLs, CFGs, PDAs
Type-1: Context-Sensitive Grammars/Languages, Linear Bounded Automatons
Type-0: Recursively Enumerable Languages, Semi-Thue Systems, TMs