INSITU STRESS

INTRODUCTION

STRESS FIELD DETERMINATIONS ARE FUNDAMENTAL FOR ALL WORK ON ROCK

MECHANICS AS THEY PROVIDE MEANS TO ANALYZE THE MECHANICAL
BEHAVIOR OF ROCK, SERVE AS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN ROCK ENGINEERING
PROBLEMS, HELP UNDERSTAND THE GROUNDWATER FLUID FLOW, AND AT
LARGER SCALES, SHED SOME LIGHT ON THE MECHANISMS CAUSING TECTONIC
PLATES TO MOVE OR FAULT TO RUPTURE. STRESSES IN ROCK CAN BE DIVIDED
INTO IN SITU STRESSES AND INDUCED STRESSES. IN SITU STRESSES, ALSO
CALLED NATURAL, PRIMITIVE OR VIRGIN STRESSES, ARE THE STRESSES THAT
EXIST IN THE ROCK PRIOR TO ANY DISTURBANCE. ON THE OTHER HAND,
INDUCED STRESSES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH ARTIFICIAL DISTURB­ANCE
(EXCAVATION, DRILLING, PUMPING, LOADING, ETC.) OR ARE INDUCED BY
CHANGES IN NATURAL CONDITIONS (DRYING, SWELLING, CONSOLIDATION,
ETC.).
• IN GENERAL, THE CURRENT IN SITU STRESSES IN A ROCK MASS ARE THE
CUMULATIVE PRODUCT OF EVENTS IN ITS GEOLOGICAL HISTORY E.G.
GRAVITATIONAL, TECTONIC, RESIDUAL, AND TERRESTRIAL STRESSES. A ROCK MASS
MAY HAVE EXPERIENCED SEVERAL CYCLES OF PHYS­ICOCHEMICAL, THERMAL AND
MECHANICAL GEOLOG­ICAL PROCESSES WHICH HAVE ALL CONTRIBUTED TO THE
CURRENT IN SITU STRESS FIELD, SOME MORE THAN OTHERS. VOIGHT (1966)
CLASSIFIED IN SITU (VIRGIN) STRESSES INTO TWO GROUPS: GRAVITATIONAL AND
TECTONIC. THE TEC­TONIC STRESSES WERE THEMSELVES DECOMPOSED INTO
CURRENT AND RESIDUAL COMPONENTS. TECTONIC STRESSES MAY BE ACTIVE
TECTONIC STRESSES (DUE TO ACTIVE PRESENT DAY STRAINING OF THE EARTH'S
CRUST) OR REMNANT TECTONIC STRESSES (DUE TO PAST TECTONIC EVENTS
WHICH HAVE ONLY BEEN PARTIALLY RELIEVED BY NATURAL PROCESSES). OBERT
(1968) DIVIDED IN SITU STRESSES INTO EXTERNAL STRESSES COMPOSED OF
GRAVITATIONAL AND TEC­TONIC STRESSES, AND INTERNAL STRESSES COMPOSED OF
RESIDUAL STRESSES. EXTERNAL STRESSES HAVE ALSO BEEN CALLED REGIONAL
STRESSES (FAIRHURST, 1968).
• STRESS-STATE OF ROCK IN UPPER LAYERS OF EARTH'S CRUST

• THE EARTH'S CRUST, A SOLID SHELL, IS THE MOST IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF THE
PLANET AND REPRESENTS THE RESULT OF GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION. THE CRUST
THICKNESS IS 24-45 KM IN THE CONTINENTS AND 45-75 KM IN MOUNTAINOUS
REGIONS. ECONOMICALLY, THE FIRST FEW KILOMETERS OF THE CRUST ARE MOST
IMPORTANT; THIS IS WHERE MINERAL PROSPECTING AND EXTRACTION OCCURS.
THE MOST IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCE OF THE EARTH'S GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND
THE DIFFERENTIATION OF THE MATTER IN THE CRUST IS THAT INDIVIDUAL
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND MINERALS ARE CONCENTRATED IN CERTAIN LOCAL
AREAS, KNOWN AS MINERAL DEPOSITS. THE GEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
OUTER LAYER OF THE EARTH'S CRUST ALSO DETERMINES THE GEODYNAMIC,
GEOTECHNICAL, AND GEOTHERMAL CONDITIONS THAT GOVERN MINING AND
UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION IN PARTICULAR, THE CONSTRUCTION OF GAS AND
OIL STORAGE TANKS AND REPOSITORIES FOR TOXIC WASTES. THE CREATION OF
CAVITIES IN ROCK DISRUPTS THE MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM THERE; THE
SURROUNDING ROCK STRIVES TO RESTORE EQUILIBRIUM, MOST NOTABLY BY THE
COLLAPSE OF ADJACENT STRESSED REGIONS OF ROCK INTO THE CAVITIES. THIS
• STRESS-STATE OF THE UPPER PART OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

• IN A FRENCH PAPER ON MINE PRESSURE AT THE IRON MINES OF LOTHARING, THE

STRESSES IN THE ROCK IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WERE ASSUMED TO BALANCE

 x  y  K z
OUT:

K 

1 

• WHERE  z  gh
• &


• IS THE ROCK DENSITY, h IS THE DEPTH BELOW THE SURFACE, IS THE
POISSON'S RATIO OF THE ROCK. HENCE, CALCULATIONS WERE BASED ON THE DINNIK
HYPOTHESIS, TAKING ACCOUNT ONLY OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCES. "THE INITIAL
STRESS IN THE ROCK IS THE RESULT OF ITS WEIGHT AND INCREASES IN PROPORTION
TO ITS DEPTH." A GERMAN SPECIALIST SUGGESTED THAT THE PHENOMENA
OCCURRING IN THE ROCK ARE CONTROLLED BY THE WEIGHT OF THE ROCK. MANY
GEOMECHANICS RESEARCHERS EXPRESSED SIMILAR VIEWS IN THE MID-1960S.
• ELEVATED HORIZONTAL STRESS: A DISTINGUISHING
FEATURE OF THE UPPER LAYER OF THE EARTH'S CRUST
• THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS OF THE STRESS EXCEED THE
VERTICAL STRESS, AS A RULE, AND ARE NOT EQUAL.
ELEVATED HORIZONTAL STRESS WAS FIRST DETECTED IN
SCANDINAVIAN MEASUREMENTS. HORIZONTAL STRESS
EXCEEDING THE VERTICAL STRESS BY A FACTOR OF 5-10 WAS
RECORDED IN THE APATITE MINES. IN 1970 IT WAS CONCLUDED
THAT "IN THE CONTINENTAL REGIONS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST,
A GENERAL TECTONIC COMPRESSION FIELD PREDOMINATES;
AND IN FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURES, THE PRINCIPAL STRESS
IS CLOSE TO VERTICAL."
• THE EARTH'S CRUST CONSTANTLY UNDERGOES SHEAR
ASSOCIATED WITH ROTATIONAL EFFECTS, TIDAL WAVES IN
THE LITHOSPHERE, TECTONIC MOTION OF ITS INDIVIDUAL
COMPONENTS, SEISMIC PROCESSES, THE MOTION OF
MAGMATIC MASSES, AND FLUCTUATION IN THE THERMAL
FIELD. THE EARTH'S CRUST MAY BE REGARDED AS A
DISTINCTIVE MECHANODYNAMIC SYSTEM THAT
EXPERIENCES VARIOUS MASS FORCES GENERATED BY
GLOBAL PROCESSES WITH DIFFERENT PERIODS. DIFFERENT
TYPES OF MOTION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST ARE
SUPERIMPOSED, LEAVING THEIR TRACES OVER THE WHOLE
THICKNESS OF THE ROCK; ULTIMATELY, THIS IS REFLECTED
IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE ROCK COMPONENTS.
• THE GRAVITATIONAL-FORCE HYPOTHESIS RECONSIDERED

• THE TECTONIC FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ELEVATED HORIZONTAL STRESS IN

THE EARTH'S CRUST HAVE BEEN FORMED OVER MILLIONS OR TENS OF MILLIONS OF
YEARS AND CONTINUE TO DEVELOP TODAY. NO RHEOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE
EARTH'S CRUST MAY SMOOTH OR ELIMINATE THEM. THEREFORE, THEY MUST BE
TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN MINING PRACTICE. THE CLASSICAL EXAMPLE OF A
DEPOSIT WITH ELEVATED HORIZONTAL STRESS IS THE TASHTAGOL'SK IRON-ORE
DEPOSIT, WHERE THE RISK OF ROCK FALL IS AMONG THE GREATEST THROUGHOUT
RUSSIA. IT WOULD BE QUITE UNACCEPTABLE TO IGNORE TECTONIC FORCES IN
WORKING THIS DEPOSIT. THE DISCOVERY OF ELEVATED HORIZONTAL STRESS AND
THE CORRESPONDING TECTONIC FORCES FUNDAMENTALLY CHANGED
GEOMECHANICS AND THE THEORY OF MINE PRESSURE. IT BECAME CLEAR THAT
THE STRESS DUE TO TECTONIC FORCES CANNOT BE CALCULATED; IT MUST BE
MEASURED. WHEREAS CALCULATION OF THE INITIAL STRESS ON THE BASIS OF THE
GRAVITATIONAL HYPOTHESIS WAS PROBLEMATIC ON ACCOUNT OF THE
INHOMOGENEOUS PROPERTIES OF THE ROCK, A FURTHER UNPREDICTABLE FACTOR
HAS NOW BEEN ADDED: THE TECTONIC STRESS, WHICH IS LITTLE UNDERSTOOD.
• IN THESE CONDITIONS, PRELIMINARY MEASUREMENT OF THE INITIAL STRESS IS
NECESSARY AT ALL DEPOSITS WHERE TECTONIC FORCES ARE KNOWN TO BE PRESENT OR
ARE THOUGHT LIKELY TO BE PRESENT, IN ORDER TO SELECT THE CORRECT MEANS OF
CONTROLLING MINE PRESSURE AND, HENCE, THE CORRECT PARAMETERS OF THE
UNDERGROUND MINING TECHNOLOGY. DETERMINATION OF ALL THE PARAMETERS OF
THE TENSOR STRESS FIELD IN THE ROCK IS NECESSARY BEFORE NEW MINE WORKINGS
MAY BE DESIGNED (PLANNED), MEANS OF CONTROLLING MINE PRESSURE MAY BE
SELECTED, AND THE ORIENTATION OF THE GRID OF PRELIMINARY WORKINGS MAY BE
CHOSEN.

Continents of globe before 200 Ma Continents of globe before Today

• METHODS OF IN SITU STRESS MEASUREMENT

• COMPARED WITH OTHER ROCK MASS PROPERTIES, ROCK STRESS IS A DIFFICULT

QUANTITY TO MEASURE. IN GENERAL, ALL IN SITU STRESS MEASURING TECH­
NIQUES CONSIST OF DISRUPTING THE ROCK. THE RESPONSE ASSOCIATED WITH
THE DISTURBANCE IS MEASURED (IN THE FORM OF STRAIN, DISPLACEMENT OR
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE RECORD) AND ANALYZED BY MAKING SEVERAL
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE ROCK'S CONSTITUTIVE BEHAVIOR, ETC. THE PROCESS
OF DIS­TURBANCE ITSELF IS USUALLY ACCOUNTED FOR IN THE ANALYSIS. A
PREREQUISITE WHEN MEASURING THE VIRGIN STRESS FIELD IS THAT THE ROCK'S
RESPONSE TO DISTURBANCE MUST BE MEASURED IN REGIONS FAR AWAY FROM
NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL EXCAVATION BOUNDARIES. FOR UNDERGROUND
OPENINGS, A DIS­TANCE OF AT LEAST 1.5-2 TIMES THE OPENING SPAN OR
DIAMETER IS SUGGESTED. ALSO, IT IS RECOM­MENDED THAT THE
MEASUREMENTS SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT AWAY FROM MAJOR ROCK MASS
HETERO­GENEITIES OR FAULT ZONES UNLESS THE MEASURE­MENTS ARE
INTENTIONALLY CARRIED OUT TO STUDY THE STRESS DISTURBANCE
ASSOCIATED WITH SUCH FEATURES.
• IT MUST BE EMPHASIZED THAT ENGINEERING AND SAFETY ISSUES
SHOULD GOVERN THE ROCK STRESS MEASUREMENT PROCESS. THE ROCK
STRESS INFORMATION MAY BE REQUIRED FOR THE FOLLOWING
ENGINEERING ASPECTS, EITHER DIRECTLY OR AS INPUT TO NUMERICAL
MODELS:
• LONG- AND SHORT-TERM STABILITY OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
(TUNNELS, CAVERNS, SHAFTS AND OTHER OPENINGS);
• DETERMINATION OF EXCAVATION METHODS;
• DESIGN OF ROCK SUPPORT SYSTEMS;
• PREDICTION OF ROCK BURSTS;
• THERMO-HYDRO-MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE ROCK;
• DESIGN OF GROUT METHODOLOGY;
• FLUID FLOW AND CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT;
• FRACTURING AND FRACTURE PROPAGATION.
• SEVERAL FACTORS NEED TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN PLANNING A
PROGRAM OF IN SITU STRESS MEASUREMENTS.
• (1) THE SITE GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS (AND THEIR
VARIATIONS) MUST BE PROPERLY IDENTIFIED INCLUDING TOPOGRAPHY,
ROCK TYPE, GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES, ANISOTROPY, HETEROGENEI­TIES
AND THE LIKELIHOOD OF HIGH STRESSES. SUCH FACTORS ARE
IMPORTANT SINCE THEY WILL HELP, AMONG OTHER THINGS, IN
SELECTING THE METHODS OF STRESS MEASUREMENT THAT ARE THE
MOST SUIT­ABLE AND THE LOCATION OF THE MEASUREMENTS. THEY WILL
ALSO HELP IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THE MEASUREMENTS
THEMSELVES. OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE DECISION
PROCESS INCLUDE THE PRESENCE OF WATER, THE TEMPERATURE OF THE
ROCK AND THE WATER, AND THE POSSIBLE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL
CONDITIONS.
• (2) THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STRESS MEASURE­MENTS MUST BE CLEARLY
IDENTIFIED AND IN PARTICULAR HOW THEY WILL BE INTEGRATED INTO
THE PROJECT OF INTEREST. THIS AFFECTS THE SELECTION OF THE STRESS
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE, THE LOCATION OF THE MEASUREMENTS,
HOW MANY MEASURE­MENTS NEED TO BE CARRIED OUT, AND IN WHAT
DIRECTIONS AND DEPTHS.
• (3) EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL NEEDS HAVE TO BE ASSESSED.
• (4) AVAILABLE ACCESS AND SERVICES NEED TO BE IDENTIFIED.
• (5) THE BUDGET AND TIME AVAILABLE FOR STRESS MEASUREMENTS MUST
BE ASSESSED.
• (6) FINALLY, IT MUST BE KEPT IN MIND THAT, FOR A GIVEN PROJECT,
STRESSES CAN BE DETERMINED USING SEVERAL (DIRECT OR INDIRECT)
METHODS AT THE SAME LOCATION OR AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS. THIS
APPROACH IS HIGHLY RECOMMENDED SINCE IT WILL PROVIDE A
MEASURE OF CONSISTENCY AND RELIABILITY.
• METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF IN SITU ROCK STRESS
CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO MAIN CATEGORIES. THE FIRST
CONSISTS OF METHODS THAT DISTURB THE IN SITU ROCK
CONDITIONS, I.E. BY INDUCING STRAINS, DEFORMATIONS OR
CRACK OPENING. THE FOLLOWING METHODS MAY BE INCLUDED
IN THIS CATEGORY -
• HYDRAULIC METHODS, INCLUDING HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
AND HYDRAULIC TESTS ON PRE-EXISTING FRACTURES (HTPF),
• BOREHOLE RELIEF METHODS

• SURFACE RELIEF METHODS.

• THE SECOND CONSISTS OF METHODS BASED ON THE
OBSERVATION OF ROCK BEHAVIOUR WITHOUT ANY MAJOR
INFLUENCE FROM THE MEASURING METHOD. THE FOLLOWING
METHODS BELONG TO THIS CATEGORY:
• STATISTICS OF MEASURED DATA (DATABASE),
• CORE-DISCING,
• BOREHOLE BREAKOUTS,
• RELIEF OF LARGE ROCK VOLUMES (BACK ANALYSIS),
• ACOUSTIC METHODS (KAISER EFFECT),
• STRAIN RECOVERY METHODS,
• GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
• EARTHQUAKE FOCAL MECHANISMS.
THE METHODS MAY ALSO BE CLASSIFIED BY THEIR OPERATIONAL TYPE AND AN INDICATION
OF THE ROCK VOLUME INVOLVED IN THEIR USE.

TABLE : METHODS FOR ROCK STRESS MEASUREMENT CLASSIFIED BY OPERATIONAL TYPE.

METHODS FOR ROCK STRESS MEASUREMENT CLASSIFIED BY OPERATIONAL TYPE

CATEGORY METHODS ROCK VOLUME (M3)

HYDRAULIC FRACTURING 0.5-50

OVERCORING 10-3-10-2
METHOD PERFORMED IN BOREHOLES
HTPF 1-10

BOREHOLE BREAKOUT 10-2 -100

STRAIN RECOVERY METHODS 10-3

METHODS PERFORMED USING DRILL CORES CORE DISCING 10-3

ACOUSTIC METHODS (KAISER EFFECT) 10-3

JACKING METHODS 0.5-2

METHOD PERFORMED ON ROCK SURFACE
SURFACE RELIEF METHODS 1-2

EARTHQUAKE FOCAL MECHANISM 109

ANALYSIS OF LARGE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
FAULT SLIP ANALYSIS 108

OTHERS RELIEF OF LARGE VOLUMES (BACK ANALYSIS) 102 -103

• METHODS PERFORMED ON ROCK SURFACES.

• JACKING METHODS

• SURFACE RELIEF METHODS

• ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION USING JACKING METHODS

• THE METHOD IS INTENDED FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

ROCK STRESS PARALLEL TO AND NEAR THE EXPOSED ROCK
SURFACE IN AN EXCAVATION. IN MANY ASPECTS THEY CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS PAR­TIAL SURFACE RELIEF METHODS. EACH
MEASUREMENT DETERMINES STRESS IN ONE DIRECTION
ONLY.
• PRINCIPLE
• JACKING METHODS ARE SOMETIMES CALLED 'STRESS
COMPENSATING' METHODS. THE EQUILIBRIUM OF A ROCK
MASS IS DISTURBED BY CUTTING SLOTS ON THE SURFACES OF
ROCK EXCAVATIONS (QUARRIES, GAL­LERIES, PILLARS, ETC.).
THIS IN TURN CREATES DEFOR­MATIONS THAT ARE MEASURED
WITH REFERENCE PINS OR STRAIN GAGES PLACED ON EITHER
SIDE OF THE SLOTS. FINALLY, EQUILIBRIUM IS RESTORED BY
INSERT­ING A DEVICE SUCH AS A JACK IN THE SLOTS. THEN
THE JACK IS PRESSURIZED UNTIL ALL DEFORMATIONS HAVE
VANISHED. ONE OF THE MOST WIDELY USED JACKING
METHODS IS THE FLAT JACK METHOD.
FIG. FLAT JACK SETUP USED BY MERRILL & CO-WORKERS (1964)
• FLAT JACK SYSTEM
• A SYSTEM OF THREE FLAT JACKS AT 45° FROM EACH OTHER IN A
GIVEN PLANE NORMAL TO THE AXIS OF AN UNDERGROUND OPENING
CAN BE USED TO DETER­MINE THE THREE COMPONENTS OF THE IN
SITU STRESS FIELD ACTING IN THAT PLANE. IF THE COMPLETE THREE-
DIMENSIONAL STATE OF STRESS NEEDS TO BE DETER­MINED WITH
FLAT JACKS ALONE, A MINIMUM OF SIX JACK TESTS NEED TO BE
CONDUCTED IN SIX DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS AND AT DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS AROUND THE PERIPHERY OF THE OPENING. THE TESTS
SHOULD BE AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE WITHOUT INTERFERING WITH ONE
ANOTHER AND SHOULD BE A MINIMUM OF FIVE TIMES THE TUNNEL
DIAMETER AWAY FROM ANY OTHER HEADING.
• SURFACE RELIEF METHODS
• THIS CATEGORY OF METHODS MEASURES THE ROCK RESPONSE TO
STRESS RELIEF (BY CUTTING OR DRILLING) BY RECORDING THE
DISTANCE BETWEEN GAUGES OR PINS ON A ROCK SURFACE BEFORE
AND AFTER THE RELIEF. EXAMPLES OF THE TECHNIQUE ARE THE
FLAT JACK METHOD AND THE CURVED JACK METHOD. THE
CATEGORY IS MOST SUITABLE FOR MEASUREMENT ON TUNNEL
SURFACES.
• METHODS PERFORMED IN BOREHOLES
• HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
• HTPF
• BOREHOLE RELIEF METHODS
• BOREHOLE BREAKOUTS
• ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING TECHNIQUE
• HYDRAULIC FRACTURING (HF) IS BOREHOLES FIELD-TEST METHOD DESIGNED TO
ASSESS THE STATE OF IN SITU STRESS IN THE EARTH CRUST THROUGH A DRILL
HOLE. THIS METHOD IS ALSO REFERRED TO AS HYDROFRACTURING OR
HYDROFRAC AND SOMETIMES AS MINIFRAC. THE HF STRESS DETERMINATION
METHOD DERIVES FROM A TECHNIQUE ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED BY THE
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY TO STIMULATE OIL PRODUCTION BY INCREASING THE
OVERALL POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY OF ROCK.
• HF TEST RESULTS GENERALLY IN AN ESTIMATE OF THE STATE OF IN SITU STRESS
(BOTH MAGNITUDES AND DIRECTIONS) IN THE PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE
AXIS OF THE BOREHOLE. WHEN BOTH THE BOREHOLE AND THE INDUCED HF ARE
NEARLY VERTICAL, THE STRESS COMPONENT IN THE DIRECTION OF THE HOLE AXIS
IS TAKEN AS BEING PRINCIPAL AND EQUAL TO THE OVERBURDEN WEIGHT .
• THE DOMAIN OF APPLICATION OF THE HF METHOD HAS BEEN EXTENDED WITH THE
HTPF (HYDRAULIC TESTING ON PRE-EXISTING FRACTURE) METHOD. THE HTPF
METHOD PROVIDES AN EVALUATION OF THE COMPLETE STRESS TENSOR,
INDEPENDENT OF BOREHOLE ORIENTATION AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES. WHEN
POSSIBLE, BOTH METHODS SHOULD BE COMBINED FOR OPTIMUM RESULTS. HF IS
THE ONLY ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION TECHNIQUE THAT HAS BEEN
SUCCESSFULLY APPLIED TO DEEP DRILL HOLES. THUS, THIS TECHNIQUE HAS FOUND
APPLICATION IN SITE CHARACTERIZATION INVESTIGATIONS VIA VERTICAL DRILL
HOLES FROM THE SURFACE.
• PRINCIPLE
• FOR BOTH HF AND HTPF METHODS, A SECTION OF A BOREHOLE IS SEALED OFF BY
USE OF TWO INFLATABLE RUBBER PACKERS SUFFICIENTLY PRESSURIZED SO THAT
THEY ADHERE TO THE BOREHOLE WALL. HYDRAULIC FLUID (TYPICALLY WATER) IS
PUMPED UNDER CONSTANT FLOW RATE INTO THE SECTION, GRADUALLY RAISING
THE PRESSURE ON THE BOREHOLE WALL UNTIL A FRACTURE IS INITIATED IN THE
ROCK, OR A PRE-EXISTING FRACTURE IS MECHANICALLY OPENED.
• PUMPING IS STOPPED, ALLOWING THE INTERVAL PRESSURE TO
DECAY. SEVERAL MINUTES INTO THE SHUT-OFF PHASE, THE
PRESSURE IS RELEASED AND ALLOWED TO RETURN TO
AMBIENT CONDITIONS. THE PRESSURE CYCLE IS REPEATED
SEVERAL TIMES MAINTAINING THE SAME FLOW RATE. KEY
PRESSURE VALUES USED IN THE COMPUTATION OF THE IN SITU
STRESSES ARE PICKED FROM THE PRESSURE–TIME RECORD.
THE REPEATED CYCLES PROVIDE REDUNDANT READINGS OF
THE KEY PRESSURES. THE ATTITUDE OF THE INDUCED HF, OR
OF THE PRE-EXISTING FRACTURE, IS OBTAINED USING AN
ORIENTED IMPRESSION PACKER OR ONE OF SEVERAL
GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING METHODS.
• HF ORIENTATION IS RELATED TO THE DIRECTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL
STRESSES. WITH HF, DATA FROM THE PRESSURIZATION AND FRACTURE
ORIENTATION PHASES OF THE TEST ARE USED TO OBTAIN THE IN SITU
PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN THE PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE BOREHOLE
AXIS. WITH HTPF, TESTS YIELD AN EVALUATION OF THE NORMAL STRESS
SUPPORTED BY FRACTURE PLANES WITH DIFFERENT KNOWN
ORIENTATIONS.
• THE METHOD IS, IN GENERAL, MORE SUITED TO MEASUREMENTS AT
DEPTHS >50 M THAT ARE BEYOND THE CAPABILITIES OF MOST OTHER
TECHNIQUES. IT HAS THE ADVANTAGE OF REQUIRING NO ADVANCE
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE ROCK AND BEING ABLE
TO BE CARRIED OUT WITHOUT DIFFICULTY BELOW THE WATER TABLE. IT
TENDS TO MEASURE STRESSES OVER A RELATIVELY LARGE AREA, >0.5 - 1.0
M DIA, NOT AT A POINT. THE METHOD IS MOST ACCURATE WHEN APPLIED IN
MATERIALS WHOSE BEHAVIOUR APPROACHES THAT OF BRITTLE,
HOMOGENEOUS, ELASTIC, ISOTROPIC AND NON-POROUS MEDIA.
• APPARATUS
• THE SAME APPARATUS IS NECESSARY FOR HF AND FOR HTPF.

FIG. SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A HYDRAULIC FRACTURING SYSTEM (FROM RUMMEL ET AL.).

• SURFACE EQUIPMENT: A STURDY TRIPOD OR A DRILLING RIG IS
PLACED OVER THE BOREHOLE COLLAR FOR TRIPPING THE
DOWNHOLE TOOLS NECESSARY FOR CONDUCTING THE TESTS. WHEN
DRILL PIPE OR STEEL TUBING IS USED FOR LOWERING THE TOOLS, A
DRILLING RIG IS PREFERRED BECAUSE IT CAN ACCOMMODATE THE
HEAVY WEIGHT OF THE DOWNHOLE ASSEMBLY. A TRIPOD MAY BE
USED WHEN TOOLS ARE LOWERED ON THE MUCH LIGHTER WIRELINE.

• STRADDLE PACKER: SEALING OF THE BOREHOLE TEST INTERVAL IS

ACCOMPLISHED BY USE OF TWO INFLATABLE RUBBER PACKERS,
SPACED APART A DISTANCE EQUAL TO AT LEAST SIX TIMES THE HOLE
DIAMETER. THE TWO PACKERS ARE CONNECTED MECHANICALLY AS
WELL AS HYDRAULICALLY TO FORM ONE UNIT TERMED THE
STRADDLE PACKER.
• HIGH-PRESSURE TUBING, DRILL PIPE, OR HOSE:
GENERALLY, RUBBER PACKER INFLATION AND TEST
INTERVAL PRESSURIZATION ARE CARRIED OUT
HYDRAULICALLY FROM THE SURFACE, ALTHOUGH FOR
DEEP TESTS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH THE PETROLEUM
INDUSTRY, EQUIPMENT EXISTS THAT EMPLOYS A PUMP
DIRECTLY ATTACHED TO THE STRADDLE PACKER AND IS
REMOTELY CONTROLLED. HYDRAULIC FLUID IS
CONVEYED DOWNHOLE TYPICALLY THROUGH THE USE
OF HIGH-PRESSURE STAINLESS STEEL TUBING, FLEXIBLE
HOSE, OR DRILL PIPES (ALSO CALLED DRILL RODS).
WHEN DRILL ROD IS USED, IT ALSO SERVES FOR TRIPPING
THE HYDROFRACTURING EQUIPMENT. TUBING OR HOSE
REQUIRE AN ADDITIONAL MEANS OF LOWERING AND
LIFTING THE TEST TOOLS, SUCH AS DRILL ROD OR
WIRELINE.
• PRESSURE GAGES, PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS, AND FLOW METER:
PRESSURE GAGES ARE USED ON THE SURFACE TO GIVE VISUAL REAL-TIME
INFORMATION OF THE HYDRAULIC FLUID PRESSURE. PRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS ARE USED TO MONITOR AND TRANSMIT PRESSURE DATA TO
A RECORDING DEVICE. IN SOME SETUPS, ONLY THE TEST INTERVAL
PRESSURE IS MONITORED. THE PREFERRED ARRANGEMENT IS ONE IN
WHICH THE PACKERS AND THE INTERVAL ARE PRESSURIZED AND
MONITORED INDEPENDENTLY. FOR SHALLOW TESTS, SURFACE
TRANSDUCERS ARE SUFFICIENTLY ACCURATE. FOR DEPTHS EXCEEDING
SEVERAL HUNDRED METERS, DOWNHOLE PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS (OR
TRANSMITTERS) EMPLACED CLOSE TO THE LOCATION OF THE PACKER ARE
PREFERRED. THESE PROVIDE A MORE ACCURATE RECORDING OF THE TEST
INTERVAL PRESSURE. A FLOW METER IS EMPLOYED TO MONITOR THE
FLOW OF FLUID INTO THE TEST INTERVAL. TYPICALLY THIS IS A SURFACE
DEVICE.
• PRESSURE GENERATORS: MOST OFTEN, HYDRAULIC FLUID
PRESSURE IS PROVIDED BY A PUMP OR PUMPS LOCATED ON THE
SURFACE. HOWEVER, FOR DEEP TESTS, EQUIPMENT EXISTS FOR
WHICH THE PUMP IS FIXED ON THE STRADDLE PACKER. SOME PUMPS
ARE CAPABLE OF PROVIDING UP TO 100 MPA AT A TYPICAL FLOW
RATE RANGE OF 1–10 LT/MIN. THE PUMP IS POWERED ELECTRICALLY,
PNEUMATICALLY, OR BY USE OF A COMBUSTION OR DIESEL ENGINE.

• RECORDING EQUIPMENT: ANALOG DATA FROM THE PRESSURE

TRANSDUCERS AND FLOW METER ARE FED INTO A COMPUTER DATA
ACQUISITION PROGRAM VIA AN ANALOG/DIGITAL BOARD. SEPARATE
ANALOG REAL-TIME READING OF THE TEST INTERVAL AND PACKER
PRESSURES AND OF THE FLOW RATE ARE OFTEN PROVIDED BY A
MULTI-CHANNEL STRIP-CHART RECORDER.
• FRACTURE ORIENTATION DETECTION DEVICES
• IMPRESSION PACKER: AN IMAGE OF THE BOREHOLE WALL WITHIN
THE TEST INTERVAL IS COMMONLY OBTAINED USING AN IMPRESSION
PACKER, AN INFLATABLE PACKER WITH AN OUTER LAYER OF VERY
SOFT SEMI-CURED RUBBER. THIS PACKER IS INFLATED WHEN IT IS
POSITIONED PRECISELY AT THE SAME DEPTH AS THE HF TEST
INTERVAL, RESULTING IN AN IMPRESSION OF THE BOREHOLE WALL
AND ANY FRACTURES THAT TRAVERSE IT.
• ORIENTING TOOL: ATTACHED TO THE IMPRESSION PACKER IS AN
ORIENTING TOOL, WHICH CAN BE MAGNETIC OR GYROSCOPIC. THE
MAGNETIC TOOL ENABLES A CAMERA TO PHOTOGRAPH THE POSITION
OF MAGNETIC NORTH ON THE BOREHOLE WALL, FROM WHICH THE
ORIENTATION OF ANY INDUCED FRACTURES CAN BE OBTAINED.
• IT IS CONSIDERABLY EASIER AND LESS EXPENSIVE TO USE THAN A
GYROSCOPIC TOOL, BUT IS OF LITTLE USE IN MAGNETIC ROCKS
(SUCH AS BASALT, SOME GNEISS, AND OTHERS). GEOPHYSICAL
TOOLS, SUCH AS BOREHOLE CAMERAS, BOREHOLE TELEVIEWERS
(A SONIC DEVICE) OR ELECTRICAL IMAGING SYSTEMS ARE ALSO
AVAILABLE FOR FRACTURE ORIENTATION DETERMINATION. ALL
THESE FRACTURE ORIENTATION TECHNIQUES HAVE THEIR OWN
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS. HOWEVER, WHEN THE
ELECTRICAL IMAGING SYSTEM IS DIRECTLY MOUNTED ON THE
STRADDLE PACKER, THE SAME TOOL PROVIDES INITIAL BOREHOLE
RECONNAISSANCE (NO NEED FOR CORES), EXACT POSITIONING AT
SELECTED DEPTH INTERVALS, REAL-TIME IMAGING OF FRACTURE
OPENING, AND COMBINED ELECTRICAL AND HYDRAULIC
SIGNATURE OF FRACTURE OPENING AND CLOSING.
FIG. (A) IMPRESSION PACKER ARRANGEMENT (B) SECTION TAKEN ALONG THE BOREHOLE
WALL BY IMPRESSION PACKER
• HYDRAULIC TEST ON PRE-EXISTING FRACTURES (HTPF)
• CORNET AND VALETTE FIRST PRESENTED THE THEORETICAL BASIS
AND PRACTICAL USE FOR THE HTPF METHOD. THE METHOD IS A
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING TECHNIQUE
BECAUSE IT USES THE SAME EQUIPMENT AND IS BASED ON
MEASUREMENT OF THE SAME PARAMETERS. THE HTPF METHOD HAS
BEEN PRACTICED FOR SOME 15 YEARS. INSTEAD OF INDUCING NEW
FRACTURES IN INTACT ROCK, THE HTPF METHOD IS BASED ON THE
RE-OPENING OF EXISTING FRACTURES FOUND IN THE BOREHOLE
WALL AND THEREBY DETERMINING THE NORMAL STRESS ACROSS
THE FRACTURE PLANE. DEPENDING ON ASSUMPTIONS MADE
REGARDING THE STRESS FIELD, THE HTPF METHOD ALLOWS EITHER A
3D OR 2D DETERMINATION OF THE STRESS STATE.
• A 3D DETERMINATION REQUIRES A LARGER NUMBER OF
FRACTURES TO BE TESTED. WHEN CONDUCTING HTPF TESTS,
IT IS OF IMPORTANCE THAT THE FRACTURE TESTED IS OF A
SIZE AT WHICH THE NORMAL STRESS CAN BE ASSUMED TO BE
UNIFORM AND THE GEOMETRY OF THE FRACTURE MUST BE
PLANAR. THE HTPF METHOD RELIES ONLY ON FOUR FIELD
PARAMETERS; TEST DEPTH, SHUT-IN PRESSURE, DIP AND
STRIKE OF THE TESTED FRACTURE. THE SHUT-IN PRESSURE IS
EQUIVALENT TO THE NORMAL STRESS ACTING ACROSS THE
FRACTURE PLANE. GIVEN THESE PARAMETERS FOR A
SUFFICIENTLY LARGE NUMBER OF FRACTURES WITH
DIFFERENT STRIKE AND DIPS, EITHER THE 2D OR 3D STRESS
STATE CAN BE DETERMINED.
• THEORETICALLY THE 2D SOLUTION REQUIRES AT LEAST SIX DIFFERENT
FRACTURES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM. IN PRACTICE, IT IS SUGGESTED THAT AT
LEAST 10–12 ISOLATED, PRE-EXISTING FRACTURES WITH DIFFERENT STRIKES
AND DIPS ARE TO BE TESTED IN THE BOREHOLE WALL WITHIN THE DEPTH
INTERVAL OF INTEREST. THE 3D ALTERNATIVE OF THE HTPF METHOD
INCLUDES FEWER ASSUMPTIONS ON THE STRESS FIELD BUT REQUIRES A
LARGER NUMBER OF FRACTURES TO BE TESTED. IN PRACTICE, IT IS
SUGGESTED THAT AT LEAST 18–20 SUCCESSFUL TESTS ARE OBTAINED TO
RESOLVE THE 3D STRESS FIELD.
• AS COMPARED TO CLASSICAL HYDRAULIC FRACTURING, THE METHOD HAS
THE ADVANTAGES OF FEWER LIMITATIONS AS REGARDS GEOLOGICAL
FEATURES. NOR DOES THE METHOD REQUIRE DETERMINATION OF THE
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE ROCK AND IT IS INDEPENDENT OF PORE
PRESSURE EFFECTS. AS LONG AS A VARIATION IN STRIKE AND DIP OF THE
EXISTING FRACTURES EXISTS IN THE ROCK MASS, NEITHER WEAKNESS
PLANES SUCH AS NO FOLIATION PLANES SHOULD CAUSE ANY PROBLEMS IN
OBTAINING SUCCESSFUL MEASUREMENTS.
• THE METHOD IS MORE TIME CONSUMING THAN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

AS THE DOWN-HOLE EQUIPMENT MUST BE POSITIONED AT THE EXACT

LOCATION OF EACH DISCRETE FRACTURE TO BE TESTED. THIS REQUIRES

GOOD ACCURACY IN THE DEPTH CALIBRATION. A DRAWBACK, COMPARED

TO HYDRAULIC FRACTURING, IS ALSO THAT NO PRELIMINARY RESULTS

CAN BE OBTAINED UNTIL ALL FIELD-TESTING HAS BEEN COMPLETED,

FIELD DATA EVALUATED AND THOSE DATA PROCESSED USING COMPUTER

• ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION USING BOREHOLE RELIEF METHODS

• THE BOREHOLE RELIEF METHODS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING

SUB-GROUPS:

• OVERCORING OF CELLS IN PILOT HOLES,

• OVERCORING OF BOREHOLE-BOTTOM CELLS

• BOREHOLE SLOTTING.
• OVERCORING OF MEASURING CELLS IN PILOT-HOLES
• OVERCORING BASED ON THE PRINCIPLE OF OVERCORING A PILOT
HOLE IN WHICH THE MEASURING CELL IS INSTALLED CAN BE
DIVIDED INTO FURTHER GROUPS AS FOLLOWS:
• SOFT INCLUSION CELLS,
• DEFORMATION METERS MEASURING DISPLACEMENTS OF THE WALL
DURING OVERCORING AND
• STIFF/SOLID CELLS.
• STIFF/SOLID CELLS ARE MORE UNUSUAL THAN THE OTHER TWO
GROUPS AND HAVE A GENERAL PROBLEM WITH THE DIFFERENCE IN
MATERIAL PROPERTIES BETWEEN THE ROCK AND INCLUSION
MATERIAL.
• SOFT INCLUSION CELLS

• THE PRINCIPLE OF A SOFT CELL IS BASED ON THE THEORY OF LINEAR ELASTICITY

FOR CONTINUOUS, HOMOGENOUS AND ISOTROPIC ROCKS. BY MEASURING AT LEAST
SIX STRAIN COMPONENTS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS ON THE WALL OF A
BOREHOLE, THE COMPLETE STRESS TENSOR AT THE TEST LOCATION CAN BE
DETERMINED. THEORIES FOR STRESS MEASUREMENTS IN ANISOTROPIC ROCKS
HAVE ALSO BEEN DEVELOPED. THE MOST COMMON INSTRUMENTS BASED ON THE
ABOVE PRINCIPLE ARE:

• CSIR CELL; CSIRO CELL ANDBORRE PROBE CELL.

• ROCK STRESS DETERMINATION USING BORRE PROBE CELL

• THE OVERCORING METHOD IS BASED ON CORING A LARGER DIAMETER BOREHOLE

OVER A COAXIAL SMALL-DIAMETER PILOT HOLE IN WHICH THE STRAIN-
MEASURING INSTRUMENT IS LOCATED . THUS, THE CYLINDRICAL CORE SAMPLE IS
RELAXED FROM THE STRESS FIELD IN THE ROCK MASS AND THE STRAINS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE RELAXATION ARE MEASURED. DATA SAMPLING MAY BE
ANALOG OR DIGITAL, BUT GENERALLY, THE DIGITAL SAMPLING HAS A HIGHER
• DURING MEASUREMENT, THE TEMPERATURE IS MEASURED; ONE
OBJECTIVE OF OVERCORING MEASUREMENTS IS TO MINIMIZE THE
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE STRAIN GAUGE
READINGS, WHICH ARE MADE BEFORE AND AFTER OVERCORING.
THERE EXIST SEVERAL TYPES OF OVERCORING CELLS. THE CELLS
DEVELOPED AT THE COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL
RESEARCH (CSIR) AND THE COMMONWEALTH SCIENTIFIC AND
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ORGANIZATION (CSIRO) ARE TWO MAIN
TYPES. CSIR- AND CSIRO-TYPE OF DEVICES INCLUDE 9 OR 12 STRAIN
GAUGES. THE BORRE PROBE, WHICH IS A CSIR-TYPE OF CELL, AND
THE CSIRO CELLS WITH THICK AND THIN HOLLOW INCLUSIONS (HI)
AND ITS STRAIN GAUGE CONFIGURATION, INCLUDES AXIAL,
TANGENTIAL, AND INCLINED ±45O STRAIN GAUGES FROM THE AXIAL
DIRECTION.
Fig. : Borre probe Logger and computer Assembly
• FIG. : MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE FOR THE BORRE PROBE:
• (1) ADVANCE Φ 76 MM MAIN BOREHOLE TO MEASUREMENT DEPTH;
• (2) DRILL Φ 36 MM PILOT HOLE AND RECOVER CORE FOR APPRAISAL;
• (3) LOWER BORRE PROBE IN INSTALLATION TOOL DOWN-HOLE;
• (4) RELEASE PROBE FROM INSTALLATION TOOL. STRAIN GAUGES BOND TO PILOT-HOLE
WALL UNDER PRESSURE FROM THE CONE;
• (5) RAISE INSTALLATION TOOL. PROBE/GAUGES BONDED IN PLACE;
• (6) OVERCORE THE BORRE PROBE AND RECOVER TO SURFACE IN CORE BARREL
• PRINCIPLE
• THE MEASUREMENT CELL IS INSTALLED IN A PILOT HOLE WITH STRAIN GAUGES
BONDED TO THE BOREHOLE WALL. THE CELL IS THEN OVERCORED USING A
LARGER CORING BIT, WHICH EFFECTIVELY RELIEVES THE STRESS ACTING ON THE
ROCK. THE CORRESPONDING STRAINS ARE MEASURED BEFORE, DURING, AND
AFTER OVERCORING. THE STRAIN DIFFERENCE (AFTER VS. BEFORE OVERCORING)
CAN BE RELATED TO THE IN SITU STRESS STATE ASSUMING CONTINUOUS,
HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC, AND LINEAR-ELASTIC ROCK BEHAVIOR. IN ADDITION
TO THE MEASURED STRAINS, THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE ROCK (YOUNG’S
MODULUS AND POISSON’S RATIO) MUST BE KNOWN. THESE ARE DETERMINED ON-
SITE USING BIAXIAL TESTING. THE TEST RESULTS COMPRISE THE COMPLETE
STRESS TENSOR, EXPRESSED AS THREE PRINCIPAL STRESSES (MAGNITUDES AND
ORIENTATIONS) WHICH CAN BE TRANSFORMED TO ANY PREFERABLE COORDINATE
SYSTEM. NORMALLY, SEVERAL SETS OF MEASUREMENTS ARE TAKEN AS CLOSE TO
EACH OTHER AS POSSIBLE, TYPICALLY 0.5–1.0 M SPACING , AND THE RESULTS
AVERAGED USING THE STRESS TENSOR COMPONENTS OF A COMMON COORDINATE
SYSTEM THUS, THE MEAN PRINCIPAL STRESSES ARE PRESENTED FOR A TEST LEVEL
• EVALUATION OF ROCK STRESS MEASUREMENTS BY MEANS OF OVERCORING
REQUIRES THE ASSUMPTION OF IDEAL ROCK BEHAVIOR (CONTINUOUS,
HOMOGENEOUS, ISOTROPIC, AND LINEAR-ELASTIC BEHAVIOR). DURING FIELD
MEASUREMENTS, ONE STRIVES TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS ONLY WHEN THE ABOVE
CONDITIONS ARE SATISFIED. HOWEVER, BECAUSE THESE CONDITIONS ARE SELDOM
MET COMPLETELY IN ROCK MASSES, ERRORS ARE INTRODUCED. THESE ERRORS
MAY BE QUANTIFIED IN TERMS OF ACCURACY, I.E., HOW CLOSE A PARTICULAR
MEASUREMENT RESULT IS TO A TRUE OR ACCEPTED VALUE AND PRECISION, I.E.,
HOW CLOSE TWO OR MORE MEASUREMENTS ARE TO EACH OTHER. FOR SIMILAR
THREE-DIMENSIONAL OVERCORING METHODS, A RECENT STUDY OF BORRE
OVERCORING DATA SHOWED THAT THERE IS AN ABSOLUTE IMPRECISION OF AT
LEAST 1–2MPA IN THE MAGNITUDE OF OVERCORING STRESS MEASUREMENT DATA,
REGARDLESS OF STRESS COMPONENT OR MEASURED VALUE. FURTHERMORE,
THERE IS AN ADDITIONAL RELATIVE IMPRECISION OF AT LEAST 10% FOR THE STRESS
MAGNITUDES. VARIATION IN ORIENTATION OF MEASURED STRESSES IS LARGE
(UPTO 150), PARTICULARLY FOR CASES WHEN TWO OF THE PRINCIPAL STRESSES ARE
SIMILAR IN MAGNITUDE.
• SYSTEMATIC ERRORS MAY ALSO ARISE, E.G., DUE TO EQUIPMENT
ERRORS OR IMPROPER MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE. SUCH ERRORS
CAN BE MINIMIZED BY CAREFUL CONTROL AND ADHERENCE TO THE
QUALITY OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR THE METHOD. IN THE FINAL
PRESENTATION OF MEASURED ROCK STRESSES, ERRORS AND
UNCERTAINTIES CAN BE REDUCED BY REJECTING OBVIOUSLY
ERRONEOUS MEASUREMENTS. CARE MUST BE TAKEN WHEN DOING
SO, AS IT CANNOT BE GUARANTEED THAT THE REJECTED DATA ARE
INACCURATE. WHEN PRESENTING DATA FROM OVERCORING STRESS
MEASUREMENTS, ROCK STRESS MAGNITUDES ARE TO BE GIVEN IN
UNITS OF MPA WITH ONE DECIMAL POINT, E.G. 4.1MPA.
• BOREHOLE BREAKOUT METHOD
• SPALLING OF THE WALLS OF BOREHOLES OR WELL BORES DUE TO
STRESS CONCENTRATION PRODUCES ELONGATED INTERVALS WITH
NON-CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTIONS WHOSE LONG AXES SHARE
COMMON AVER­AGE DIRECTION. SUCH INTERVALS ARE DEFINED AS
BREAKOUTS OR BREAKOUT ZONES WHEN THE SHORTER DIAMETER
OF THE BOREHOLE CORRESPONDS TO, OR IS CLOSE TO, THE
DIAMETER OF THE DRILL BIT. THE ORI­ENTATION OF THE MAJOR AND
MINOR HORIZONTAL IN SITU STRESSES AROUND A VERTICAL
BOREHOLE CAN BE INFERRED FROM THE ORIENTATION OF
BREAKOUTS AS IT IS USUALLY ASSUMED THAT BREAKOUTS OCCUR IN
TWO DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSED ZONES ALONG THE DIRECTION OF
THE MINIMUM HORIZONTAL IN SITU STRESS.
• BREAKOUT FORMATION IS A RUPTURE PHENOM­ENON THAT HAS BEEN

FOUND IN ALMOST ALL ROCK TYPES. NUMEROUS INVESTIGATIONS HAVE

ESTAB­LISHED THAT CONSISTENTLY ORIENTED BREAKOUTS FORM WITHIN

AN INDIVIDUAL WELL AND IN WELLS WITHIN A GIVEN STRESS FIELD. THIS

POSSIBILITY OF MULTIPLE DETERMINATIONS OF STRESS IN AN INDIVIDUAL

WELL, AND THE ABILITY TO CHECK FOR REGIONAL CONSISTENCY AMONG

NUMEROUS WELLS, MAKE BREAKOUT DATA VALUABLE INDICATORS OF

STRESS ORIENTATION. IN ADDITION, BECAUSE WELLS FOR PETROLEUM

AND THERMAL ENERGY EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION OFTEN ARE

DRILLED TO DEPTHS OF 3-4 KM AND EVEN DEEPER, BREAKOUT DATA HELP

TO BRIDGE THE GAP BETWEEN NEAR-SURFACE STRESS INDICATORS AND

DEEP STRESS INDICATORS FROM EARTHQUAKE FOCAL MECHANISMS AT

DEPTHS OF 5-15 KM (ZOBACK ET AL., 1989).

• FIG. 30. DEVELOPMENT OF BOREHOLE BREAKOUT IN THE WALL OF A VERTICAL
BOREHOLE SUBJECTED TO MAJOR AND MINOR HORIZONTAL IN SITU STRESSES SH AND Sh,
RESPECTIVELY.
• IN GENERAL, BREAKOUTS ARE USED TO DETERMINE THE ORIENTATION OF IN SITU
STRESSES BUT NOT THEIR MAGNITUDE. HOWEVER, IT HAS BEEN FOUND THAT THE
SHAPE AND DEPTH OF BREAKOUTS IN VERTICAL HOLES DEPEND ON THE
MAGNITUDE OF THE MAJOR AND MINOR HORIZONTAL IN SITU STRESSES. THIS
DEPENDENCY HAS LED SEVERAL AUTHORS TO SUGGEST THAT THE GEOMETRY OF
BOREHOLE BREAKOUTS COULD BE USED TO ESTIMATE THE MAGNITUDE OF IN SITU
STRESSES. NEVERTHELESS, THIS APPROACH MUST BE USED WITH CAUTION AS
BREAKOUTS CAN BE ENLARGED BECAUSE OF VARIOUS PHENOMENA SUCH AS
REDUCTION OF ROCK MASS STRENGTH DUE TO TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS OR
THE CHEMICAL COM­POSITION OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS, OR WEATHERING OF THE
BOREHOLE WALL ESPECIALLY IN WEAK OR WEAKLY CEMENTED ROCK MASSES.
BREAKOUTS CAN ALSO BE AFFECTED BY THE INTENSITY OF DRILLING (HIGH OR
LOW THRUST) AND THE DRILLING METHOD SELECTED. FURTHERMORE, RECENT
FIELD TESTS HAVE REVEALED THAT BREAKOUT GEOMETRY IS AFFECTED BY THE
HOLE DIAMETER, WITH AN INCREASE IN BREAKOUT LENGTH AND DEPTH WITH
INCREASING HOLE DIAM­ETER.
• METHODS PERFORMED USING DRILL CORES
• STRAIN RECOVERY METHODS
• ACOUSTIC METHODS (KAISER EFFECTS)
• CORE DISCING

FIG. : INSTRUMENT FOR ASR MEASUREMENTS OF A DRILL CORE. THREE PAIRS OF

RADIAL INDUCTIVE DISPLACE­MENT TRANSDUCERS AND ONE AXIAL TRANSDUCER
ARE USED TO MEASURE THE ANELASTIC RESPONSE OF A CORE SAMPLE. (AFTER
WOLTER AND BERCKHEMER, 1989.)
STRESS MEASUREMENT METHODS AND KEY ISSUES RELATED TO THEIR APPLICABILITY
METHOD 2D/3D ADVANTAGE LIMITATIONS SUITABLE FOR
MEASUREMENTS,
MOST DEVELOPED TECHNIQUES IN SCATTERING DUE TO SMALL ROCK
OVERCORING 2D/3D DEPTH DOWN TO 1000
BOTH THEORY AND PRACTICE VOLUME, REQUIRE DRILL RIG.
M.
WORKS IN JOINT AND HIGH STRESSED FOR WEAK OR HIGH
DOORSTOPPER 2D ONLY 2D, REQUIRE DRILL RIG
ROCK STRESSED ROCK

MEASUREMENTS IN EXISTING HOLE. ONLY 2D. THE THEORETICAL SHALLOW TO DEEP

HYDRAULIC LOW SCATTERING OF RESULTS LIMITATIONS IN THE EVALUATION OF
2D MEASUREMENTS TO
FRACTURING INVOLVES A FAIRLY LARGE ROCK ΣH -DISTURBS WATER CHEMISTRY. OBTAIN STRESS PROFILE
VOLUME

IT IS OF MOST INTEREST
MEASUREMENTS IN EXISTING HOLE.
TIME CONSUMING. REQUIRE WHERE BOTH
CAN BE APPLIED WHEN HIGH
HTPF 2D/3D EXISTING FRACTURE IN THE HOLE OVERCORING AND
STRESSES EXIST AND OVERCORING
WITH VARYING STRIKE AND DIPS. HYDRAULIC
AND HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FAIL
FRACTURING FAILS.
EXISTING INFORMATION WHICH IS
ESTIMATION OF STRESS
CORE DISCING 2D OBTAINED ALREADY AT THE DRILLING ONLY QUALITATIVE ESTIMATION.
AT EARLY STAGE
STAGE
RESTRICTED TO INFORMATION ON
BOREHOLE EXISTING INFORMATION OBTAINED AT ORIENTATION. THEORY NEEDS TO BE OCCURS MOSTLY IN
2D
BREAKOUTS AN EARLY STAGE. RELATIVELY QUICK FURTHER DEVELOPED TO INFER THE DEEP HOLES
STRESS MAGNITUDE
FOCAL INFORMATION ONLY FROM GREAT DURING SEISMIC
2D FOR GREAT DEPTHS
MECHANISMS DEPTHS EVENTS
KAISER EFFECTS 2D/3D SIMPLE MEASUREMENTS RELATIVELY LOW RELIABILITY ROUGH ESTIMATION
COMPLICATED MEASUREMENTS ON
ASR/DSCA/ ESTIMATION OF STRESS
2D/3D USABLE FOR GREAT DEPTHS THE MICRO SCALE, SENSITIVE TO
RACOS STATE AT GREAT DEPTH
SEVERAL FACTORS.
CAN ONLY BE USED
BACK QUICK AND SIMPLE. HIGH CERTAINTY THEORETICAL NOT UNIQUE DURING
2D
CALCULATION DUE TO LARGE ROCK VOLUME SOLUTION CONSTRUCTION OF
CAVERNS
ANALYSIS OF
VERY ROUGH ESTIMATION, LOW AT EARLY STAGE OF
GEOLOGICAL 2D/3D LOW COST
RELIABILITY. PROJECTS