PROGRAMMING

FUNDAMENTALS LECTURE #

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 C O N T R O L STRUCTURES

• A computer can proceed:

• In sequence

• Selectively (branch): making a choice

• Repetitively (iteratively): looping

• Some statements are executed only if certain conditions

are met

• A condition is met if it evaluates to true

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C O N T R O L STRUCTURES

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 C O N T R O L STRUCTURES

• You must understand the nature of conditional

statements and how to use them.
• Consider the following three statements:

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 O N E - WAY S E L E C T I O N

• The syntax of one-way

selection is:

• The statement is executed if the value of the expression is

true

• The statement is bypassed if the value is false; program

goes to the next statement

• if is a reserved word

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O N E - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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O N E - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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O N E - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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O N E - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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 T W O - WAY S E L E C T I O N

• Two-way selection takes the

form:

• If expression is statement1 is otherwis

true, executed; e,
statement2 is
• statement1
executed and statement2 are any C++
statements

• else is a reserved word

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T W O - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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T W O - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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T W O - WAY S E L E C T I O N

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 C O M P O U N D ( B L O C K OF S TAT
EMENTS)

• Compound statement (block of

statements):

• A compound statement is a single

statement

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 C O M P O U N D ( B L O C K OF S TAT
EMENTS)

if (age > 18)

{
cout << "Eligible to vote." << endl; cout
<< "No longer a minor." << endl;
}
else
{
cout << "Not eligible to vote." << endl;
cout << "Still a minor." << endl;
}

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D E C I S I O N M A K I N G : E Q U A L I T Y A N D REL AT I O N A L OPER
ATOR S

if structure
• Decision based on truth or false of
condition
• If condition met, body executed
• Else, body not executed

Equality and relational operators

• Equality operators
• Same level of precedence
• Relational operators
• Same level of precedence
• Associate left to right

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D E C I S I O N M A K I N G : E Q U A L I T Y A N D REL AT I O N A L OPER
ATOR S

C++
Standard C++
relation Meaning
algebraic condition
al
equality
operato
operator
r
Relational operators

> > x>y x is greater than y

< < x<y x is less than y

≥ >= x >= y x is greater than or equal to

y

≤ <= x <= y x is less than or equal to y

Equality operators

= == x == y x is equal to y

 != x != y x is not equal to y

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 REL AT I O N A L OPER
ATOR S

• A condition is represented by a logical (Boolean)

expression that can be true or false

• Relational
operators:

• Allow
comparisons

• Require two
operands
(binary)

• Evaluate to true
or false
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REL AT I O N A L OPER ATOR S A N D S AMPLE DATA
TYPES

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 C O M PA R I N G C H A RA C T E R S

• Expression with relational operators

• Depends on machine’s collating sequence

• ASCII character set

• Logical (Boolean) expressions

• Expressions such as 4 < 6 and 'R' > 'T’

• Returns an integer value of 1 if the logical expression

evaluates to true

• Returns an integer value of 0 otherwise

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 C O M PA R I S O N OF
C H A RA C T E R S

• For characters

• Respective ASCII values are

compared

• 'R' > 'T' is false (82 >

84)

• '+' < '*' is false (43 <

42)

• 'A' <= 'a' is true

(65<97)

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REL AT I O N A L A N D E Q U A L I T Y OPER ATOR S
( CONT.)

• The relational operators have

very low precedence and associate left-to-
right

• The equality operators have

very-very low precedence and associate
left-to-right
17 < foo ==
• Some examples:
x 3.14
age != x+1 >=
21 4*y-z

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 PRECEDENCE

Operato Precedence
rs highest (applied
() first)
*/%
+-
< <= >
>=
== !=
lowest (applied
= last)

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LO G I C A L OPER ATOR S A N D LO G I C A L
EXPRESSIONS

Operator Description
! NOT
&& AND
| OR

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LO G I C A L OPER ATOR S A N D LO G I C A L
EXPRESSIONS

• A N D & OR operators work just like AND/OR-Gate as you

studied in
Physics in intermediate
• A N D = True iff all conditions are TRUE
• OR = False iff all results are FASLE

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O R D E R OF P R E C E D E N C E

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 O R D E R OF P R E C E D E N C E

• Suppose you have the following

declarations
bool found = true;
int age = 20;
double hours =
45.30;
double overtime = 15.00;
int count = 20;
Expression
char ch = 'B'; Value / Expression
false
!found
Because found is true, !found is false
true
hours > 40.0 Because hours is 45.3 and 45.3 > 40.0 is true, the
expression
hours > 40.0 evaluates to true
false
!age Age is 20, which is non zero so age is true. Therefore !
age is
false
false
!found && (age !found is false; age >= 18 is 20 >= 18 is true.
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>=18) Therefore !found && (age >=18) is false && true,
 O R D E R OF P R E C E D E N C E

bool found = true;

int age = 20;
double hours =
45.30;
double overtime = 15.00;
int count = 20;
char ch = 'B';
Expression Value / Expression
true
hours + overTime is 45.30 + 15.00 = 60.30 and
hours + overTime <= 75.0
60.30 <=
75.0 is true, it follows that hours +
overtime <= 75 evaluates to
true
true
Now count is 20, Because 20 >= 0 is true, count
(count >= 0) && (count <= >=0 is
100) true. Also 20 <= 100 is true, count <=100
is true. Therefore (count >= 20) && (count
<= 100) is true & true, which evaluates to
true
true
Here ch is ‘B’. Because ‘A’ <= ‘B’ is true,‘A’ 28
(‘A’ <= ch && ch <= ‘Z’) <= ch evaluates to true. Also, because ‘B’ <=
LO G I C A L OPER ATOR S A N D LO G I C A L
EXPRESSIONS

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LO G I C A L OPER ATOR S A N D LO G I C A L
EXPRESSIONS

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 C O N D I T I O N A L OPER ATOR
(? :)

• Conditional operator (?:) takes three arguments

• Ternary operator

• Syntax for using the conditional operator:

expression1 ? expression2 : expression3

• If expression1 is true, theresultof the conditional

expression is
expression2

• Otherwise, the result is expression3

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 C O N D I T I O N A L OPER ATOR
(? :)

Consider the following statement

if(x >= y)

large = x;

else

large = y;

You can use the conditional operator to simplify the

writing of
this if…else statement as follows:

large = (x >= y)? x: y ;

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M U LT IPLE SE LE C TIONS: N E S T E D IF ( C O N T ’
D.)

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M U LT IPLE SE LE C TIONS: N E S T E D IF ( C O N T ’
D.)

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M U LT IPLE SE LE C TIONS: N E S T E D IF ( C O N T ’
D.)

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 IF- ELSE PAIRING

Assume that all the variables are properly declared and consider the
following
statements:
if (gender == 'M') //Line 1
if(age < //Line 2
21) policyRate = //Line 3
0.05;
els //Line 4
e policyRate = //Line 5
0.035;
else if (gender == //Line 6
'F’)
//Line 7
if(age < policyRate = //Line 8
21) 0.04;
els //Line 9
e policyRate = //Line
0.03; 10

In this code, the else in Line 4 is paired with the if in Line 2. Note that for the else in Line
4, the most recent incomplete if is the if in Line 2. The else in Line 6 is paired with the if in
Line 1. The else in Line 9 is paired with the if in Line 7. Once again the indentation
does not determine the pairing, but it communicates the pairing

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C O M PA R I N G IF- ELSE S TAT
E ME NTS

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 SHORT- C I RC U I T EVALUAT I O N

• Short-circuit evaluation: evaluation of a logical

expression stops as soon as the value of the
expression is known

• Example:

Assume x = 21, y=5, z = 3, ch = ‘B’

(x >= 20) | ( y == 10)

//Line 1 (ch == 'A') && (z <

7)
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 SHORT- C I RC U I T ANALYSIS

int a=10;
int b = 5;

1.(a > 5 && b == && > 10 && (b = 15));

5 a
2.((a = 5) || b 5 a > 10 && (b = 15));
== &&
3.a = 10, b =
5;
4.(a > 5 && b = 5 || a > 10 && (b = 15));
=
5.(a > 5 && b = 5 && a > 10 || (b = 15));
=
6.(a = 5 || b = 5 && a > 10 && (b = 5));
=

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 A S S O C I AT IVITY OF REL AT I O N A L OPER
ATOR S

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int x;
cout << "Enter and integer =

"; cin >> x;

cout << endl;

if (0 <= x <= 10)

cout << x << " is within
0 and 10" << endl;
else
cout << x << " is not
within 0 and 10" << endl;
return 0;
}

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 A S S O C I AT IVITY OF REL AT I O N A L OPER
ATOR S
• x=
7
0 <= x <= = 0 <= 7 <=
10 10
= (0 <=7) <= Because relationship operators are
10 evaluated from left to right
= 1 <= 10 Because 0<=7 is true, 0<=7 evaluates to 1
= 1 (true)

• x=
030
<= x <= = 0 <= 30 <=
10 10
= (0 <=30) Because relationship operators are
<= 10 evaluated
from left to right
= 1 <= 10 Because 0<=30 is true, 0<=30 evaluates
to 1
= 1 (true)
Solution:
0 <= x && x
<= 10
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E Q U A L I T Y ( ==) OPER ATOR VS A S S I G N M E N T ( =)
OPER ATOR

• C++ allows you to use any expression that can be

evaluated to either true or false as an expression in the
if statement:

if (x = 5)

cout << "The value is five." << endl;

• The appearance of = in place of == resembles a silent

killer

• It is not a syntax error

• It is a logical error

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EN
D