Chapter -2

System Modelling and Analysis

Bewnet Getachew
Lecturer
Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Transfer Function of Linear
Systems
1.2.1 Block Diagram Models
1.2.2 Signal-Flow Graph Models
1.3 State space modeling
1.5 Design Examples
1.6 The Simulation of Systems Using
Control Design Software
DESIRED OUTCOMES

Upon completion of Chapter 2, students

should:

Recognize that differential equations can describe the

dynamic behavior of physical systems.
Be able to utilize linearization approximations
through the use of Taylor series expansions.
Understand the application of Laplace transforms and
their role in obtaining transfer functions.
Be aware of block diagrams (and signal-flow graphs)
and their role in analyzing control systems.
Understand the important role of modeling in the
control system design process.
1.1 Introduction

Mathematical models may assume many different forms.

Depending on the particular system and the particular
circumstances, one mathematical model may be better suited
than other models.

For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous

to use state-space representations. On the other hand, for
the transient-response or frequency-response analysis of
single-input, single-output, linear, time-invariant systems, the
transfer-function representation may be more convenient
than any other.

Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various

analytical and computer tools can be used for analysis and
synthesis purposes.
The approach to dynamic system modeling can
be listed as follows:
1. Define the system and its components.
2. Formulate the mathematical model and fundamental
necessary assumptions based on basic principles.
3. Obtain the state-space equations representing the
mathematical model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system.
Model complexity
As model becomes more detailed it also can become more
accurate.
Model accuracy needed for control system design is
normally simpler than the model used for system simulation.
Simpler models:
-ignore some physical phenomena,
-approximate linearly nonlinear characteristics
-use lumped parameters approximation of distributed
parameters systems.
For the design of a control system:
-an initial simplified model is built for conceptual design.
-a more model is used for controller design and
parameters determination.
Controllers
Controllers are the part of the overall feedback control system
that are the main focus of control engineering.

Classifications of Controllers
a. By the type of implementation:
-pneumatic controller
-hydraulic controller
-analog electronic controllers
-digital controllers

b. By control law:
- On-off,
- Proportional, P-control
- PD-control (Proportional plus Derivative)
- PID-control (Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative)
 Disturbanc p(s)
uc(s) u(s) e
e (s)
Controlle Manipulat
Set-point Error d Signal ed
or Variable
Referenc Actual
e input + + Outpu
+
+ Controller Actuator + Process t
yd(s) -
y (s)
C(s) M(s) S(s)

Sensor
Feedback Signal
y m(s) H(s)
 Proportional Control Action
For a controller with proportional control action, the
relationship between the output of the controller u(t)
and the actuating error signal e(t) is

r, in Laplace-transformed quantities,

where Kp is termed the proportional gain.

Whatever the actual mechanism may be and whatever the
form of the operating power, the proportional controller is
essentially an amplifier with an adjustable gain.
Integral Control Action
In a controller with integral control action, the value
of the controller output u(t) is changed at a rate
proportional to the actuating error signal e(t).That is,
Or

where Ki is an adjustable constant. The transfer

function of the integral controller is

Proportional-Plus-Integral Control
Action
The control action of a proportional- plus-integral
controller is defined by
 or the transfer function of the controller is

where Ti is called the integral time.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control
Action
The control action of a proportional-plus-derivative
controller is defined by

and the transfer function is

here Td is called the derivative time.

 Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-
Derivative Control Action
The combination of proportional control action,
integral control action, and derivative control action
is termed proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative
control action. It has the advantages of each of the
three individual control actions. The equation of a
controller with this combined action is given by

or the transfer function is

where Kp is the proportional gain, Ti is the integral time, and Td is the

derivative time.
The block diagram of a proportional-plus-integral-
plus-derivative controller is shown in Figure 2–5.

Figure 2–5 Block diagram of a proportional-plus-

integral-plus-derivative controller.
 MODELING IN STATE SPACE
In this section we shall present material on state-
space analysis of control systems.
Modern Control Theory
Modern control theory, which is a new approach to the analysis and
design of complex control systems, has been developed since around
1960.This new approach is based on the concept of state.
Complex tasks and good accuracy.
High performance.
Multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
Time varying.
Easy access to large scale computers.
dern Control Theory versus Conventional Control Theo
1. Modern control theory
applicable to
 multiple-input, multiple-output systems,
 linear or nonlinear systems,
 time invariant or time varying systems,
2. Conventional control theory
applicable only to
 single-input, single-output systems
 linear systems,
 time invariant systems,
State
The state of a dynamic system are the values of the
set of state variables, such that knowledge of these
variables at t=t0 , together with knowledge of the
input
Statefor t ≥ t0 , completely determines the behavior
Variables
The
of thestate variables
system for any of ≥t0 .
a tdynamic
time system are the
variables making up the smallest set of variables
that determine the state of the dynamic system. If at
least n variables x1, x2 , , , , xn are needed to
completely describe the behavior of a dynamic
system (so that once the input is given for t ≥t0 and
the initial state at t=t0 is specified, the future state
of the system is completely determined), then such n
 If n state variables are needed to completely
describe the behavior of a given system, then these
n state variables can be considered the n
components of a vector x. Such a vector is called a
state vector. A state vector is thus a vector that
determines uniquely the system state x(t) for any
time t ≥t0 , once the state at t=t0 is given and the
input u(t) for t ≥ t0 is specified.
State Space
The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes
consist of the x1 axis, x2 axis, , , , xn axis, where x1,
x2, , , , xn are state variables, is called a state
State-Space Equations
space. Any state can be represented by a point in
In state-space analysis we are concerned with three
the state space.
types of variables that are involved in the modeling
of dynamic systems:
Input variables,
Output variables, and
State variables.
 State Model
U1(t)
MIMO Y1(t)
U2(t) SYSTEM
Y2(t)

X1(t) X2(t)
U1(t) and U2(t) = inputs
X1(t) and X2(t) = state variables
Y1(t) and Y2(t) = outputs

Output Equations

y1(t) = c11x1(t) + c12x2(t) + d11u1(t) + d12u2(t)

y2(t) = c21x1(t) + c22x2(t) + d21u1(t) + d22u2(t)
x1(t) d11 d12 u1(t)
y1(t) c11 c12 +
= d21 d22 u1(t)
y2(t) c21 c22 x2(t)
State Equations
.
x1(t) = a11x1(t) + a12x2(t) + b11u1(t) + b12u2(t)
.
x2(t) = a21x1(t) + a22x2(t) + b21u1(t) + b22u2(t)

. x1(t) b11 b12 u1(t)

x1(t) a11 a12 +
. = b21 b22 u1(t)
x2(t) a21 a22 x2(t)

Y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)---(1) output equation

.
X(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)----(2) state equation
The state of a system is a set of variables whose values,
together with the input signals and the equations describing
the dynamics, will provide the future state and output of the
system.
Example-1
Determine the state variable characterization of the RLC
circuit shown in Figure below.

Solution
The state of this system can be described by a set of state
variables {x1,x2), where x1 is the capacitor voltage vc(t) and x2
is the inductor current iL{t).
Utilizing Kirchhoff’s current law at the junction, we obtain a first-order
differential equation by describing the rate of change of capacitor
voltage as

Eq. 1

Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the right-hand loop provides the equation
describing the rate of change of inductor current as

Eq. 2

The output of this system is represented by the linear algebraic

equation
We can rewrite Equations (1) and (2) as a set of two first-order
differential equations in terms of the state variables X\ and x2 as
follows:

Eq.3

and

Eq.4

The output signal is then

Eq.5

We use Equations (3) and (4) to obtain the state variable differential
equation for the RLC circuit as
and the output as

When R = 3, L = 1, and C = 1/2, we have

and
 Example-2
Determine the state variable characterization of the RLC circuit shown
in Figure below. Consider two outputs VR and VC

Solution
The state of this system can be described by a set of state
variables {x1,x2), where x1 is the capacitor voltage vc(t) and x2
is the current i{t).
x1 = v c
x2 = i
y1 = vc = x1
y2 = Ri = Rx2
Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the loop provides

U= i(t)R + vL + vC
U = i(t)R + Ldi(t)/dt + vC
di(t)/dt = 1/LU – R/Li(t) – 1/LvC
dvC/dt = 1/Ci(t)
.
x. 2 = 1/LU – R/Lx2 – 1/Lx1

x1 = 1/Cx2
The state-space representation for a given system is not
The dynamic
unique, system
except that must
the number involve
of state elements
variables that
is the same
memorize
for thedifferent
any of the values state-space
of the input for t ≥ t1. of
representations Since
the
same system. in a continuous-time control system
integrators
serve as memory devices, the outputs of such
integrators can be considered as the variables that
define the internal state of the dynamic system.
Thus the outputs of integrators serve as state
variables. The number of state variables to
completely define the dynamics of the system is
Assume that a multiple-input, multiple-output
equal to the number of integrators involved in the
system involves n integrators. Assume also that
system.
there are r inputs u1(t), u2(t), , , ur(t) and m outputs
y1(t), y2(t), , , ym(t).
Define n outputs of the integrators as state
variables: x1(t), x2(t), , , xn(t) Then the system may
be described by
The outputs y1(t), y2(t), , , ym(t) of the system may
be given by
If we define

then Equations become

Relationship between Transfer Functions and
State-Space Equations
System transfer function

has to be obtained from the matrix form of state and output equations
by elimination the other variable, the vector x(s).
This requires Laplace transform of these matrix equations for zero
initial conditions.

s X(s) = A X(s) + B U(s)

Y(s) = C X(s) + D U(s)
or
(sI-A)X(s) = B U(s)
Y(s) = C X(s) + D U(s)

where I is a 2 by 2 identity matrix.

The elimination is carried out by solving first equation for x(s)

and replacing x(s) in the second equation

or

For single input , y(s) = y(s) and single output u(s) = u(s) such
that

This equation gives the relationship between the transfer

function and the matrices A, B, C, and D of the state space
representation.
Given that the inverse of the matrix sI-A is given by the
matrix of adjoints ||sI-A|| divided by the determinant |
sI-A|

Assuming D=0

Such that the poles of the transfer function G(s) are given by
|sI-A|=0
that is actually the equation that permits the calculation of the vector
of eigenvalues λ of the square matrix A
|λ I-A|=0
This indicates that the characteristic equation of the system is
given by (sI-A). That means that the eigenvalues of A is
identical to the poles of G(s) in the Laplace domain.
The poles of the transfer function G(s) can, consequently be
calculated as eigenvalues of the matrix A.

Example: Consider the RLC system analyzed before.

State space and output equations for the system were given by

obtain the transfer function from the state space equations

Example 1
Obtain a state-space equation and output equation for the system
defined by using MATLAB

MATLAB Program

num = [2 1 1 2];
den = [1 4 5 2];
[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)
Example-2
Consider the system defined by

Solution. MATLAB Program produces four transfer functions.

This is the MATLAB representation of the following four transfer
functions:
MATLAB Program

A = [0 1;-25 -4];
B = [1 1;0 1];
C = [1 0;0 1];
D = [0 0;0 0];
[NUM,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1)

[NUM,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,2)
Eigen values and Eigen vector
Example-1
Consider the system defined by A matrix

5 4
A =
1 2

Calculate Eigen values and Eigen vector

Solution
Eigenvalues λ of the square matrix A
|λ I-A|=0

1 0 - 5 4
= 0
λ 0 1 1 2
 λ 0 - 5 4
= 0
0 λ 1 2

λ-5 -4 = 0
-1 λ-2

(λ-5)(λ-2)-4=0
λ2-2λ-5λ+10-4=0
λ2-7λ+6=0
λ=-6 and λ=-1 Eigen values
x1
|λ I-A| = 0
x2
 λ-5 -4 x1
= 0
-1 λ-2 x2

When λ=6

1 -4 x1
= 0
-1 4 x2

1x1- 4x2 = 0 ----- x1=4x2

-x1+4x2 =0 --- x1=4x2 --- x2=1 and x1=4

When λ=1 (4 , 1) eigenvector

-4 -4 x1
= 0
-1 -1 x2

-4x1- 4x2 = 0 x1= -x2

-x1 - x2 =0 --- x1=-x2 ---- (1 , -1) eigenvector