MIT School of Computing

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Third Year Engineering

21BTCS502-Database Management System

Class - T.Y.PLD
(Division-)

AY 2024-2025
SEM-I

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Database Management System

Teaching Credit Examination Scheme and Marks

Scheme Scheme
PLD
Lecture: 04 04 Continues Assessment (TH): 40 Marks
Hours/Week
End_Semester_Examination (TH): 60 Marks

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Syllabus

PLD

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MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

PLD

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MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

PLD

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 Unit – I

Introduction to Database Management Systems

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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Syllabus

• Database Concepts, Three-schema architecture of a database,

Data Models : ER model, Relational Model, ER to Table
Conversion.
• Relational Algebra: Select, PLD
Project, Union, Set difference, Join.
• SQL-Characteristics and advantages, SQL Data Types and
Literals, DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, Views, Indexes.
• PLSQL: Concept of Stored Procedures, Functions, Cursors,
Triggers.
• NOSQL- MongoDB CRUD Operations, SQL Vs NoSQL
Databases, Introduction of databricks.
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 MIT School of Computing
Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Introduction :
Database
• Collection of related data that is stored in a central location
or in multiple locations

Data hierarchy: Structure andPLDorganization of data involving

fields, records, and files

Database Management System (DBMS)

• Software for creating, storing, maintaining, and accessing
database files
• Makes using databases more efficient

8
Interaction Between the User, DBMS and Database
Disadvantage of File-oriented system
Data Redundancy:
• It is possible that the same information may be duplicated in different files. this
leads to data redundancy results in memory wastage.
Data Inconsistency:
• Because of data redundancy, it is possible that data may not be in
consistent state.
Difficulty in Accessing Data:
• Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file processing system.
Limited Data Sharing:
• Data are scattered in various files. Also different files may have
different formats and these files may be stored in different
folders may be of different departments.
• So, due to this data isolation, it is difficult to share data among
different applications.
Integrity Problems:
• Data integrity means that the data contained in the database in
both correct and consistent. for this purpose the data stored in
database must satisfy correct and constraints.
Atomicity Problems:
• Any operation on database must be atomic.
• this means, it must happen in its entirely or not at all.
Concurrent Access Anomalies:
• Multiple users are allowed to access data simultaneously. this is
for the sake of better performance and faster response.
Security Problems:
• Database should be accessible to users in limited way.
• Each user should be allowed to access data concerning his
Levels of Abstraction

There are mainly three levels of data abstraction:

• Internal Level: Actual PHYSICAL storage structure

and access paths.

• Conceptual or Logical Level: Structure and

constraints for the entire database

• External or View level: Describes various user views

• Example: Let’s say we are storing customer information
in a customer table. At physical level these records can
be described as blocks of storage (bytes, gigabytes,
terabytes etc.) in memory. These details are often hidden
from the programmers.
• Gmail account
DBMS Three Level Architecture
This architecture has three levels:
1. External level
2. Conceptual level
3. Internal level
1. External level
• It is also called view level. The reason this level is called “view” is
because several users can view their desired data from this level which
is internally fetched from database with the help of conceptual and
internal level mapping.
2. Conceptual level
• It is also called logical level. The whole design of the
database such as relationship among data, schema of data etc.
are described in this level.
3. Internal level
• This level is also known as physical level. This level
describes how the data is actually stored in the storage
devices. This level is also responsible for allocating space to
the data. This is the lowest level of the architecture.
 Data Models
• Data Model gives us an idea that how the final system will
look like after its complete implementation.
• Data Models are used to show how data is stored,
connected, accessed and updated in the database
management system.
• Data models define how the logical structure of a database is
modeled.
• It is classified into 3 types:
1. Conceptual Data Models -- ER Model
2. Representational Data Models – Relational Model
3. Physical Data Models
Entity-Relationship Model

• ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level data model.

This model is used to define the data elements and relationship for a specified
system.
• It develops a conceptual design for the database.
• We use the ER diagram as a visual tool to represent an ER Model. ER diagram
has the following three components:
• Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or even a
concept. Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building, Department, etc. are
some of the entities of a School Management System.
• Attributes: An entity contains a real-world property called attribute. This is the
characteristics of that attribute. Example: The entity teacher has the property like
teacher id, salary, age, etc.
• Relationship: Relationship tells how two entities are related. Example: Teacher
works for a department.
Advantages of ER Model
• Simple: Conceptually ER Model is very easy to build. If we
know the relationship between the attributes and the entities
we can easily build the ER Diagram for the model.
• Effective Communication Tool: This model is used widely
by the database designers for communicating their ideas.
• Easy Conversion to any Model: This model maps well to
the relational model and can be easily converted relational
model by converting the ER model to the table. This model
can also be converted to any other model like network
model, hierarchical model etc.
Types of Entity type

• Strong Entity Type

• Weak Entity Type

• Strong Entity Type: Strong entity are those entity types

which has a key attribute. The primary key helps in
identifying each entity uniquely
• Weak Entity Type: Weak entity type doesn't have a key
attribute. Weak entity type can't be identified on its own. It
depends upon some other strong entity for its distinct
identity.
• If we have two tables of Customer and Address.
• Here we cannot identify the address uniquely as there can be
many customers from the same locality.
• So, for this, we need an attribute of Strong Entity Type i.e
‘Customer’ here to uniquely identify entities of 'Address'
Entity Type.
Relationship in DBMS
• Any association between two entity types is called a
relationship.
• One-to-One Relationship
• One-to-Many or Many-to-One Relationship
• Many-to-Many Relationship
• One-to-One Relationship
Such a relationship exists when each record of one table is
related to only one record of the other table.
 • One-to-Many or Many-to-One Relationship
Such a relationship exists when each record of one table can be
related to one or more than one record of the other table

If there are two entity type ‘Customer’ and ‘Account’ then each ‘Customer’ can
have more than one ‘Account’ but each ‘Account’ is held by only one
‘Customer’. In this example, we can say that each Customer is associated with
many Account. So, it is a one-to-many relationship. But, if we see it the other
way i.e many Account is associated with one Customer then we can say that it
is a many-to-one relationship.
Many-to-Many Relationship

• If there are two entity type ‘Customer’ and ‘Product’ then

each customer can buy more than one product and a
product can be bought by many different customers.
 Types of Participation Constraints-
• Total participation
• Partial participation
• 1. Total Participation-
• It specifies that each entity in the entity set must compulsorily participate in
at least one relationship instance in that relationship set.
• That is why, it is also called as mandatory participation.
• Total participation is represented using a double line between the entity set
and relationship set.

• Double line between the entity set “Student” and relationship set “Enrolled
in” signifies total participation.
• It specifies that each student must be enrolled in at least one course.
• 2. Partial Participation-
• It specifies that each entity in the entity set may or may not participate in
the relationship instance in that relationship set.
• That is why, it is also called as optional participation.
• Partial participation is represented using a single line between the entity
set and relationship set.

• Single line between the entity set “Course” and relationship set “Enrolled in”
signifies partial participation.
• It specifies that there might exist some courses for which no enrollments are
made.
Types of Attributes-
• Simple attributes
• Composite attributes
• Single valued attributes
• Multi valued attributes
• Derived attributes
• Key attributes

!!!!!!!!!!Task for students!!!!!!!!!!

• Entity-Simple rectangular box represents an Entity.

• Relationships between Entities - Weak and Strong

• Weak Entity-A weak Entity is represented using double rectangular boxes

• Derived Attribute for any Entity

• Multivalued Attribute for any Entity

• Attributes for any Entity

• Composite Attribute for any Entity

Relational Model
• Relational Model is the most widely used model.
• In this model, the data is maintained in the form of a two-
dimensional table.
• All the information is stored in the form of row and
columns. The basic structure of a relational model is
tables.
ER to Table conversion

• Entity type becomes a table.

• All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table.
• A key attribute of the entity type represented by the primary
key.
• The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table.
• Composite attribute represented by components.(student
address is a composite attribute, It contains CITY, PIN,
DOOR#, STREET, and STATE, In the STUDENT table, these
attributes can merge as an individual column.)
• Derived attributes are not considered in the table.
SQL Characteristics and advantages
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL is a database language designed for the retrieval and
management of data in a relational database.
• SQL is the standard language for database management
• All the RDBMS systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
Sybase, Postgres, and SQL Server use SQL as their standard
database language.
• SQL programming language uses various commands for
different operations like DCL, TCL, DQL, DDL and DML.
Types of SQL
DDL-

• Data Definition Language, which deals with database

schemas and descriptions, of how the data should reside in
the database.
• CREATE- to create a database and its objects like (table,
index, views, store procedure, function, and triggers)
• ALTER - alters the structure of the existing database
• DROP - delete objects from the database
• TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including
all spaces allocated for the records are removed
• COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
DML

• DML is short name of Data Manipulation Language

which deals with data manipulation.
• SELECT - retrieve data from a database
• INSERT - insert data into a table
• UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
• DELETE - Delete all records from a database table
DCL AND TCL
DCL is short name of Data Control Language which includes commands such as GRANT and mostly
concerned with rights, permissions and other controls of the database system.
• GRANT - allow users access privileges to the database
Eg- GRANT SELECT/INSERT/ DELETE/UPDATE ON Users TO ‘sonali'@'localhost;
• REVOKE - withdraw users access privileges given by using the GRANT command
• Eg-REVOKE privilege_name ON object_name FROM {user_name};
TCL is short name of Transaction Control Language which deals with a transaction within a database.
• COMMIT - commits a Transaction
START TRANSACTION;
INSERT INTO student (name, lastname) VALUES ('Dmytro', 'Shvechikov');
COMMIT;
• ROLLBACK - rollback a transaction in case of any error occurs
START TRANSACTION;
INSERT INTO student (name, lastname) VALUES ('Dmytro', 'Shvechikov');
ROLLBACK;
• SAVEPOINT - to rollback the transaction making points
within groups or sets a save point within a transaction.
• SET TRANSACTION - specify characteristics of the
transaction
SQL Data types
SQL Server String Data Type
It is a fixed width character string data type. Its size can
char(n)
be up to 8000 characters.
It is a variable width character string data type. Its size
varchar(n)
can be up to 8000 characters.

It is a variable width character string data types. Its size

varchar(max)
can be up to 1,073,741,824 characters.

It is a variable width character string data type. Its size

text
can be up to 2GB of text data.
It is a fixed width Unicode string data type. Its size can be
nchar
up to 4000 characters.
It is a variable width Unicode string data type. Its size can
nvarchar
be up to 4000 characters.
MySQL Date and Time Data Types

It is used to specify date format YYYY-MM-DD. Its supported

DATE
range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'.
It is used to specify date and time combination. Its format is
DATETIME(fsp) YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. Its supported range is from '1000-
01-01 00:00:00' to 9999-12-31 23:59:59'.
It is used to specify the timestamp. Its value is stored as the
number of seconds since the Unix epoch('1970-01-01
TIMESTAMP(fsp) 00:00:00' UTC). Its format is YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. Its
supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-
01-09 03:14:07' UTC.
It is used to specify the time format. Its format is hh:mm:ss. Its
TIME(fsp)
supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
It is used to specify a year in four-digit format. Values allowed
YEAR
in four digit format from 1901 to 2155, and 0000.
MySQL Numeric Data Types

It is used for a bit-value type. The number of bits per value is specified in size. Its size
BIT(Size)
can be 1 to 64. The default value is 1.

It is used for the integer value. Its signed range varies from -2147483648 to 2147483647
INT(size) and unsigned range varies from 0 to 4294967295. The size parameter specifies the max
display width that is 255.

INTEGER(size) It is equal to INT(size).

It is used to specify a floating point number. Its size parameter specifies the total number
FLOAT(size, d)
of digits. The number of digits after the decimal point is specified by d parameter.

It is used to specify a floating point number. MySQL used p parameter to determine

FLOAT(p) whether to use FLOAT or DOUBLE. If p is between 0 to24, the data type becomes
FLOAT (). If p is from 25 to 53, the data type becomes DOUBLE().

It is a normal size floating point number. Its size parameter specifies the total number of
DOUBLE(size, d)
digits. The number of digits after the decimal is specified by d parameter.
 Views
• Views in SQL are kind of virtual tables.

• A view also has rows and columns as they are in a real table in
the database.

• We can create a view by selecting fields from one or more

tables present in the database.

• A View can either have all the rows of a table or specific rows
based on certain condition.
Example:
CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
FROM StudentDetails WHERE S_ID < 5;

To see the data in the View, we can query the view in the same
manner as we query a table.

SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

INDEXES
• Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search
engine can use to speed up data retrieval.
• Simply put, an index is a pointer to data in a table. An index in
a database is very similar to an index in the back of a book.
• An index helps to speed up SELECT queries and WHERE
clauses, but it slows down data input, with the UPDATE and
the INSERT statements. Indexes can be created or dropped
with no effect on the data

******Task for Students******

Relational Algebra
• Relational algebra is a procedural query language.
• It uses operators to perform queries.
• They accept relations as their input and yield relations as their
output.
• The operations of relational algebra are as follows −
• Select
• Project
• Union
• Set different
• Cartesian product
• Rename
• Selection (σ)
Selection is used to select required tuples of the relations.
• Projection (π)
Projection is used to project required column data from a relation.
• Union (U)
Union operation in relational algebra is same as union operation
in set theory, only constraint is for union of two relation both
relation must have same set of Attributes.
• Set Difference (-)
Set Difference in relational algebra is same set difference
operation as in set theory with the constraint that both relation
should have same set of attributes.
• Rename (ρ)
Rename is a unary operation used for renaming attributes of a
relation.
• Cross Product (X)
• Cross product between two relations let say A and B, so cross
product between A X B will results all the attributes of A
followed by each attribute of B.
Joins
• The join operations is one of the most useful and commonly used operations to
extract information from two or more relations.
• The join operations denoted by ⋈ and it is used to join two relations to form new
relations on the basis of common attributes present in two relations.
• Types of Join
1. Cross Join
2. Natural Join
3. Conditional Join
4. Equi Join
5. Self Join
6. Outer Join -------6.1 left join
6.2 Right Join
6.3 Full Join
Concept of Stored Procedures
• A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save,
so the code can be reused over and over again.
• You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the
stored procedure can act based on the parameter value(s) that
is passed.
delimiter /
create procedure dis()
Begin
select * from emp;
end;
/
Execute it as - call display/
• Parameterized Procedure-

Delimiter /
Create procedure disp2(rn varchar(4))
Begin
Select * from emp where empid=rn;
End;
/
Execute it by - Call display2(1)/
Functions
• A function is same as a procedure except that it returns a value.
DELIMITER //
CREATE FUNCTION SQUARE (val INT)
RETURNS INT
BEGIN
DECLARE result INT;
SET result=0;
SET result=val * val;
RETURN result;
END; //
DELIMITER ;
Execute it by - Select square(2);
CREATE FUNCTION `employeelevel`(age int)
RETURNS varchar (20) DETERMINISTIC
BEGIN
declare employeelevel varchar(20);
if age>35 then
set employeelevel = 'seniour';
elseif (age<=35 and age>=30) then
set employeelevel = 'juniour';
elseif age<30 then
set employeelevel = 'fresher';
end if;
RETURN employeelevel;
END
Call function
select post, age, employeelevel(age) from employee;
Triggers
• Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired
when some events occur.

• Triggers are, in fact, written to be executed in response to any of the events

like DDL(Create, alter, drop) and DML(Delete, Insert, Update) and Database
operations like logon, logoff, startup, or shutdown.

Advantages of Triggers in SQL

• Helps us to automate the data alterations.
• Allows us to reuse the queries once written.
• Provides a method to check the data integrity of the database.
• Helps us to detect errors on the database level.
• Allows easy auditing of data.
Syntax of Trigger

CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

{Before | after}
{ INSERT [OR] | DELETE [OR] | UPDATE}
ON table_name
[for each row]
Declare
Declaration statements
Begin
Executable statements
End.
 Example 1

create trigger salary_difference

before insert or delete or update on employee
for each row
declare salary_difference number;
begin
salary_difference := :new.salary – :old.salary
dbms.output.put_line(‘old salary:’ ||:old.salary);
dbms.output.put_line(‘New salary:’ ||:new.salary);
dbms.output.put_line(‘Salary Difference:’ ||salary_diference);
end
/
Note: To execute trigger we must have employee table already created.
Example 2

Suppose we want to create neworder for medicine automatically if medicines are

below specified quantity then we can create trigger as below
delimiter $$
create trigger neworderformedicine
after update on medicine
for each row
begin
if new.quantity <20 then
insert into neworder values(new.mid, sysdate(), 200);
end if;
end;
$$

Note: medicine table and neworder table should be created for operations.
 Cursors

• A cursor is a pointer to the context area. PL/SQL controls the

context area through a cursor.
• A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement.
• You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to
fetch and process the rows returned by the SQL statement, one at a
time.
There are two types of cursors :
• Implicit cursors- implicit cursors are automatically created by
Oracle whenever an SQL statement is executed
• Explicit cursors- Explicit cursors are programmer-defined cursors
for gaining more control over the context area(When Oracle process
an SQL statement, it needs to allocate memory called context area).
SQL is declarative language not procedural language focuses on
what to do?

PL + SQL = PL/SQL

Now we are using PL/SQL for cursor implementation.

PL/SQL focuses on both what to do? and How to do?

PL/SQL code block is divided into three parts:
1. Declarative
2. Executable code
3. Exception handling(optional)
What is NOSQL
1. It is an way to store data in database.
2. NOSQL does not require any datatypes.
3. No problem of speed and scalability.
4. Data storage depends on user.
5. Through JSON format we maintain database.
6. ACID properties may not work properly in NOSQL but still can implement
it.
E.g. MongoDB

Advantages of NOSQL
7. Cheap and easy to implement due to open source.
8. Easy to distribute.
9. Scale to available memory.
10. Have individual query language rather than using a standard query.
11. Flexible data model
12. Developer friendly more developer centric interface.
 NOSQL- MongoDB CRUD Operations

• MongoDB is NoSql database based on document model where

data objects are stored as separate documents inside the
collection.
• MongoDB groups data together through collections. Collection
is grouping of documents that have similar or related purpose.
• Document is representation of single entity of data in the
mongoDB database. Collection is made up of one or more
related objects.
• MongoDB documents are similar to Javascript Object
Notation objects but use a variant called Binary JSON (BSON)
that accommodates more data types.
BSON data format
{
[name:’sonali’,
age:30,
address:
{
city:’Mumbai’
},
hobbies:[
{name:’reading’},
{ name:’driving’}
]
]

}
MongoDB GUI Tools

• NoSQLBooster
• Studio 3T
• MongoDB Compass
• Nucleon Database Master
• NoSQL Manager
• Mongo Management Studio
• MongoJS Query Analyzer
• Nosqlclient
• Cluster control
• Sql--- database--- table---rows---column---index
• Nosql---database---collection---documents—field---
index
• Collections
‘Collections’ in Mongo are equivalent to tables in relational databases. They
can hold multiple JSON documents.
• Documents
‘Documents’ are equivalent to records or rows of data in SQL.
• Fields
‘Fields’ or attributes are similar to columns in a SQL table.
• Schema
While Mongo is schema-less, SQL defines a schema via the table definition.
A Mongoose ‘schema’ is a document data structure (or shape of the
document) that is enforced via the application layer.
• Models
‘Models’ are higher-order constructors that take a schema and create an
instance of a document equivalent to records in a relational database.
CRUD Operation

• To create database command use DATABASE_NAME.

• To check your currently selected database use the command db
• To check your databases list, use the command show dbs.
• To display database, you need to insert at least one document into it.
• To drop the database
db.dropDatabase() command is used to drop a existing database.
• To create collection syntax is
db.createCollection(“nameofCollection”)
• To insert
db.nameofCollection.insert({“key”:”value”})
db.nameofCollection.insertMany([{‘key’:’value’}, {‘key’:’value’}])
db.nameofCollection.insertOne({name:’aaaa’,age:30,
address:{street:’abcd’,city:’mumbai’}})
• To check your collection in database use command
show collections
• To display all documents in collection
db.nameofCollection.find()
• To display specific data from document (person with age 27)
db.nameofCollection.find({age:27})
• To display all data from document whose age are greater than 26
db.nameofCollection.find({age: {$gt: 26}})
• To update the document in collection
db.nameofCollection.update(data to update,updated data)
eg-- db.users.update({name:’sonali’},{$set:{age:30}})
it will update the age of specific name
db.users.update({name:’sonali’},{age:30})
it will update the age but name will be replaced by only age.
• To delete
db.users.deleteOne({name:’aaaa’}).
db.users.deleteMany();

• Printing in JSON format

• JSON is a format called JavaScript Object Notation, and is just
a way to store information in an organized, easy-to-read manner.
• db.users.find().forEach(printjson)