Chapter 1

An Overview of Research
Contents
– Meaning and Characteristics of Research
– Objectives of Research
– Motivation in Research
– Types of Research
– Research Approaches
– Significance of a Research
– Methods, Techniques and Methodology
– Research and scientific method
– Research Process: An Overview
– Criteria of a Good Research
Introduction
• Human beings have been concerned to come to grips
with their environment through:
• Experience
• Reasoning
• Research [a combination of both experience and
reasoning]
(Cohen and Manion, 1994, p.1)
1. Experience
• Subsume a number of sources of information)
• Personal experience. i.e., body of knowledge and skills derived
from encounters and acquaintance with facts and events in the
environment
• Experience of others in the immediate circle
• Sources beyond immediate circle, i.e.,
authoritative sources
2. Reasoning
• Deductive (Aristotle)-from whole to parts
• Inductive (Francis Bacon) – from number of observations to whole
• Combined

3. Research
• Systematic , controlled empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena :
• Systematic and controlled
• Empirical
• Self- correcting
• Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must
be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth.
Inductive Reasoning
(Qualitative Approach)

Kassa T. (PhD)
 Deductive Reasoning
(Quantitative Approach)

Kassa T. (PhD)
 Research: applies logical
reasoning
• Deduction: Goes from general (theories) to specific (facts)
• Premise * Honest people do not steal
• Premise * John is honest
• Conclusion: John does not steal
• Induction: Goes from facts to generalizations (theories)
• Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz and Aweke died.
• Facts: Abebe, Ayele, Almaz are human-beings
• Generalization: Human-beings are mortal.
NB: If the premises are true, the conclusion is correct.
 Definition of Research

• In common sense, research is a search for knowledge.

• It is application of scientific method in studying problems.
• It is a systematic attempt of getting answer to questions through scientific
procedures.
• Research is a scientific and systematic search of pertinent information on a
specific topic.
• It is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data for some purpose.
• It is the process of arriving at a dependable solution to a problem through planned and
systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of a data.
• The term research consist of two words, Re and Search. “Re” means again and
again and “Search” means to find out something.
 Characteristics of research
• The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of
research.
a) Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a
phenomenon.
b) It aims at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
c) It adopts scientific method.
d) It is based on empirical evidences and observable
experience.
e) It develops generalizations, principles or theories.
f) It directed towards finding answer to the questions and
solutions to the problems
Characteristics of research
• Research is scientific because it is just a search for knowledge
through recognized methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
• It is systematic since it uses some steps or procedures in doing this.
• Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information for
some purpose.
Structure of Research

The "hourglass" notion of research

begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions

Kassa T. (PhD)
Structure of Research
• Most research projects share the same structure.
• They start with a broad idea of interest.
• Then narrow the question down.
• Measurements or observations-occur at the narrowest point.
• Here, the researcher begins to formulate some initial conclusions.
• Finally, the researcher attempts to address the original broad question
to other related situations.
 Objectives of research
• The main objective of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific procedures.
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it = exploratory research studies.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group = descriptive research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else = diagnostic research studies
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables =
hypothesis- testing research studies.
Motivation in research

• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential

benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,
i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to get respectability; and
• Desire to serve the society
 by increasing standard of living in case of Science & Technology, and
 by showing right path to society in case of social and behavioral sciences.
Types of Research
• Recognition of the differences among researches is important because
the kind of research selected will determine the conduct of research.
• The kind of research undertaken will also influence mobilization of
financial and public support for that research.
• Research can be classified in different ways: basic and applied;
qualitative and quantitative; conceptual and empirical; etc…
I. Basic Vs Applied Research
a) Applied Research (also called action research): The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate,
practical problem
• It is oriented to a specific problem.
• It has a practical problem solving emphasis.
• It emerges out of a general problem which faces a society as whole.
b) Basic Research (also called pure or fundamental research)
• It has a more general orientation, adding to the existing body of knowledge in the discipline.
• It does not necessarily provide results of immediate, practical use, although such possibility is not ruled out.
• It may consist of a research to develop and/or improve on theories, techniques and measurements.
• It is aimed to solve perplexing questions of theoretical nature that have little direct impact on action, performance,
or policy decisions.
• Generally, basic and applied researches are differentiated not by their complexity or value, but by their goals or
purposes.
• The primary purpose of basic research is the extension of knowledge; the purpose of applied research is to find
a solution for an immediate practical problem.
 II. Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research

a) Quantitative Research:
• Research based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
• Expression of a property or quantity in numerical terms
• Quantitative research helps:
– To use precise measurements
– Knowing trends or changes overtime
– Comparing trends or individual units
b) Qualitative Research:
• Research concerned with qualitative phenomenon.
• Involves quality or kind
• Helps in having insight into problems or cases
 III. Conceptual Vs Empirical Research
a) Conceptual Research: related to abstract ideas or theories. Commonly
used by philosophers and thinkers.
• Related to some abstract idea or theory (for philosophers and thinkers)
• Relies on literature
b) Empirical Research: relies on experience or observation alone.
• It is data based research coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
• Capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
• Experimenter has control over variables under study.
IV. Descriptive vs. Analytical

• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of

different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables, but only report what has happened or
happening.
• In analytical research the researcher use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Other Types

• One time/cross-sectional Vs longitudinal/ developmental and trend

or prediction studies (the time domain)
• Field-setting Vs laboratory or simulation research
• Exploratory Vs formulated (the degree of formulation of problem)
studies
• etc.
 Research approaches
• Quantitative approach-involves the generation of data in quantitative
form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion
• Qualitative approach-is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
• Mixed /multi-method- combines both objective and subjective
assessment
Significance of research
• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
• Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.
• For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.
• Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.
• Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
• Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 Methods, Techniques and Methodology

• Research techniques- the behavior and instruments used in research

operations
• examples: scales, recording techniques, content analysis, longitudinal/cross sectional collection of data,
techniques of processing data, etc.
• Research methods - the behavior and instruments used in selecting and
constructing research technique.
• Examples: observation, questionnaire, interview, analysis of records, case study, etc
• Methods are more general than techniques. It is the methods that generate techniques.
Methods and techniques are used in research operation i.e.,
• Collection of data
• Statistical processing and analysis (tests)
• Evaluation of the accuracy of the results obtained
• However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and when we talk of
research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within their
compass.
Methods…
• Research methodology - is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It is a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
• Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific
inquiry but the process itself.
• Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations
and resources, clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating
their potentialities to the frontiers of knowledge.
Methods…
• Furthermore, the following questions are usually answered
by carefully designed research methodology:
Why a research study has been undertaken?
How was the research problem defined?
In what way and how was the hypothesis formulated?
What data have been collected and what particular methods has
been adopted?
Why particular technique of analyzing data has been used ? And a
host of similar other questions.
1.11 The Research Process

Steps in Conducting Research

• It consists of a number of closely related activities.
• These activities/steps overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence

• They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order.

• The following order provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research
process.
1. Formulating the Research Problem: The first step in the research process is the
choice of a suitable problem for investigation.
• Research starts with a felt difficulty. It takes place when there is a problematic
situation and a need to solve that problem.
• Sources of a research problem are one’s professional experience, theory, and
professional literature.
Steps…
• Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then
narrowed down to a specific research problem
• After understanding the problem thoroughly, the same has to be rephrased
in to meaningful terms from analytical point of view.
2. Review the Literature: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of
it should be written down.
• At this step, the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem.
• The researcher may review two types of literature-conceptual and empirical.
• Conceptual literature is concerned with related concepts and theories.
• Empirical literature is about studies made earlier which are similar to the
one proposed.
Steps…
3. Formulation of Working Hypothesis: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
• The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right truck.

4. Preparing the Research Design (Including Sample Design):

• After formulating the research problem in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design.
• State the conceptual structures with in which the research would be conducted.
• Moreover, the researcher must design the way of selecting a sample or what is known as
the sample design.
Steps…
5. Collecting the Data (Execution): select the appropriate methods of data collection, objective
and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time, and desired degree of accuracy.
• Selected method, adequate and dependable data have to be collected.
6. Analysis of Data (Including Test of Hypothesis): After the data have been collected, the
researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
• The analytical techniques have to be appropriate and adequate.
• After analyzing the data, the researcher is in apposition to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
7. Drawing Conclusions: This is making generalizations after the analyses have been made.
• The conclusions must be based on the data and the analysis within the framework of the
research study.
• Finally, prepare the report of what has been done by him.
Criteria of Good Research

• Good research should have the following attributes

• SYSTEMATIC - Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out
creative thinking
• CONTROLLED – Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible
• LOGICAL - Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction
& deduction
• EMPIRICAL- Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation)
• REPLICABLE - Verified by replicating the study
• SELF CORRECTING - Built in mechanism & open to public scrutiny by fellow
professionals