IBBiology2023NewSyllabus B1.1 Carbohydrates and Lipids PowerPoint-1

IB Biology
2023
B1.1
Carbohydrates
and Lipids
1. In what ways do variations in form allow diversity

of function in carbohydrates and lipids?
2. How do carbohydrates and lipids compare as
energy storage compounds?
© Created by Alyssa 2023

B1.1 Carbohydrates and Lipids Sub-Topics
Sub-Topic Clarification
B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation Students should understand the nature of a covalent bond. Students should also understand that a carbon atom can form up to four single bonds or a combination of single
of diverse compounds upon which life is based and double bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms of other non-metallic elements. Include among the diversity of carbon compounds examples of molecules with branched
or unbranched chains and single or multiple rings. NOS: Students should understand that scientific conventions are based on international agreement (SI metric unit prefixes
“kilo”, “centi”, “milli”, “micro” and “nano”).
B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that Students should be familiar with examples of polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids.
link monomers to form a polymer
B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions Water molecules are split to provide the -H and -OH groups that are incorporated to produce monomers, hence the name of this type of reaction.
B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides Students should be able to recognize pentoses and hexoses as monosaccharides from molecular diagrams showing them in the ring forms. Use glucose as an example of the
link between the properties of a monosaccharide and how it is used, emphasizing solubility, transportability, chemical stability and the yield of energy from oxidation as
properties.
B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds Include the compact nature of starch in plants and glycogen in animals due to coiling and branching during polymerization, the relative insolubility of these compounds due to
large molecular size and the relative ease of adding or removing alpha-glucose monomers by condensation and hydrolysis to build or mobilize energy stores.
B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural Include the alternating orientation of beta-glucose monomers, giving straight chains that can be grouped in bundles and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds.
polysaccharide in plants
B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition Include ABO antigens as an example.
B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids Lipids are substances in living organisms that dissolve in non-polar solvents but are only sparingly soluble in aqueous solvents. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and steroids.
B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation One glycerol molecule can link three fatty acid molecules or two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group.
reactions
B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and Include the number of double carbon (C=C) bonds and how this affects melting point. Relate this to the prevalence of different types of fatty acids in oils and fats used for
polyunsaturated fatty acids energy storage in plants and endotherms respectively.
B1.1.11—Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage and thermal Students should understand that the properties of triglycerides make them suited to long-term energy storage functions. Students should be able to relate the use of
insulation triglycerides as thermal insulators to body temperature and habitat.
B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the Students should use and understand the term “amphipathic”.
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid Include oestradiol and testosterone as examples. Students should be able to identify compounds as steroids from molecular diagrams.
bilayer

B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based
Organic
Molecules
• In chemistry, organic
means “contains carbon”.
• Organic molecules are
those that are synthesized
by living organisms.
• They are all carbon-based
as a result of carbon’s
ability to form a diversity
of stable compounds.

Carbon is the backbone of

life
An Forms large Proteins
Overview complex and

varied molecules
DNA
Carbohydrate
of Carbon s
Organic Chemistry: the study

of compounds containing
carbon

Properties of
Carbon
• Carbon has 4 valence electron, and therefore can form
up to 4 covalent bonds (tetrahedral).
• Long chains of carbon atoms are bonded together to
form a skeleton for organic molecules
• Different lengths
• Different arrangement (straight, branched,
ring)
• Different bond types (single, double, triple)
• Different bonds, rings, and functional groups may be
added on to the skeleton to change the properties of
the molecule.

B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions
Various Carbon Chains
(a) (c) Double bond

Length position
Ethan Propan 1- 2-
e e Butene Butene
(b) (d) Presence of
Branching rings
Butan 2-
Cyclohexan Benzen
e Methylpropane
e e
(isobutane)
Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are molecules consisting of
only carbon and hydrogen
• Hydrocarbons are found in many of a
cell’s organic molecules
Fat droplets (stained red)
100 µm
(a) A fat molecule(b) Mammalian adipose cells

Isomers
H
• Isomers are molecules with H

H
C H
H
C
the same molecular

H H H H H H H
(a) Structural Hisomers
C C C C C H H C C C H
formula but different H H H H H H H H
structures and properties X X H X
(b) Geometric isomers C C C C

X H
• Three types of isomers are
H H
CO2H CO2H
• Structural
• Geometric (c) EnantiomersC C
H
H NH2 NH2
• Enantiomers CH3 CH3

Estradiol Testosterone
Functional Groups
Functional Group: a chemical group with distinct

properties that behave differently in chemical
reactions
Differences in one functional group may have

significant effects on properties of molecule

Chemical Group Group Properties Examples
Hydroxyl group (—OH) Alcohol
The 7 Functional Ethanol
Groups in the Carbonyl group ( C ═ O) Ketone
Chemistry of Life:
Aldehyde
Acetone Propanal
• Hydroxyl
Carboxyl group (—COOH) Carboxylic acid
or organic acid
• Carbonyl Acetic acid
• Carboxyl Amino group (—NH2) Amine
• Amino
• Sulfhydryl Sulfhydryl group (—SH) Thiol
Glycine
• Methyl Cysteine
• Phosphate
Phosphate group (—OPO 32−) Organic
phosphate
Glycerol
phosphate
Methyl group (—CH3) Methylated
compound 5-Methylcytosine

B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into
monomers by hydrolysis reactions
Metabolism
Chemical reactions of life:
• Forming bonds between molecules
• Dehydration synthesis
• Synthesis
• Anabolic reactions
• Breaking bonds between molecules
• Hydrolysis
• Digestion
• Catabolic reactions
B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer
Types of
Metabolic
Reactions
Endergonic
• forms bonds between

molecules
• require energy
• dehydration
synthesis/condensation
reaction
• anabolic reactions

The Synthesis of
Polymers
Monomers form larger molecules by condensation

reactions called dehydration synthesis.

HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water

molecule, forming a new bond H2O
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Longer polymer
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer

Dehydration Synthesis
enzyme
H2 O
enzyme

Types of Metabolic
Reactions
 Exergonic
• Breaking bonds
between
molecules
• Hydrolysis
• Release energy
• Digestion
• Catabolic reactions

The Breakdown
of Polymers
Polymers can disassemble by hydrolysis (addition of water
molecules).
HO 1 2 3 4 H
Hydrolysis adds a water

H 2O
molecule, breaking a bond
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
(b) Hydrolysis of a polymer
Hydrolysis
enzyme
H2 O
enzyme

B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions
- energy released - energy invested

exergonic - digestion endergonic - synthesis
Endergoni
c vs. +G
Exergonic -G
Reactions
G = change in free energy = ability to do work

B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into
monomers by hydrolysis reactions
Condensation Hydrolysis
Energy Energy
consumed Released
Condensati
Covalent bond Covalent
on vs formed bond broken
Hydrolysis
Water removed Water Added
Monomer  Polymer 
Polymer Monomer

Macromolecules
• Large molecules (polymers) composed

of smaller molecules (monomers).
• Complex in their structures.
• Specific monomers make up each
macromolecule
• Ex: amino acids are the monomers for
proteins

Most macromolecules are
polymers, built from
Macromolecul monomers.
es
Four classes of Carbohydrates
life’s organic Lipids
molecules are Proteins
polymers: Nucleic Acids
You need to be able to identify

and draw the structures for the
above.

Carbohydrates

B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides
Monomer:
Monosaccharides
Simple Sugar
Molecules
• Composed of C,H,O
(CH2O)n
• Contains 3-7 carbons
• Name often ends in
–ose
• Short-term energy storage

Simple sugars (monosaccharides) are the

building blocks of complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides).
Structure of Glucose
hexose (6-sided) sugar
Ribose
pentose (5-sided) sugar
Carbohydrat
es

O
H
C 6
CH2OH
1
6
CH2OH
2
CH2OH
H C OH 5C O H C
5
O 6
H H H O
3
H H 5 H
HO C H
H H
H
4
C OH C
1
C
4 1
C
4
OH 4
OH
1
H C OH H H
Structure of
O HO 3 2 OH
OH OH
3 C 2
C 3
C C
2 OH
H C
5
OH
H OH
H OH H OH
Carbohydrates
H 6
C OH
Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the

linear and ring structures greatly favors the formation of rings.
To form the glucose ring, carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen
attached to carbon 5.
Monosaccharid
es
May be linear Can form rings

Examples of Monosaccharides
Triose sugars Pentose sugars Hexose sugars
(C3H6O3) (C5H10O5) (C6H12O6)
H O H O H O H O
C C C C
Aldoses H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH
H C OH H C OH HO C H HO C H
H H C OH H C OH HO C H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
Glyceraldehyde
H H C OH H C OH
Ribose H H
Glucose Galactose
H H H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
C O C O C O
Ketoses
H C OH H C OH HO C H
H H C OH H C OH
Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H C OH
H H C OH
Ribulose H
Fructose
Glucose
• Glucose has the formula

C6H12O6
• It forms a hexagonal ring
(hexose)
• Glucose is the form of sugar
that fuels respiration
• Glucose forms the base unit
for many polymers

Alpha vs Beta
Glucose:
Differentiate
Between the
Two

Galactose
• Most commonly found
in milk, but also found
in cereals.
• Galactose is also a
hexose sugar like
glucose.
• It has the same formula Galactosemia, which means “galactose in the blood,”
refers to a group of inherited disorders that impair the
C6H12O6 but is less sweet body's ability to process and produce energy from
galactose.

Fructose
• Fructose is another
pentose sugar
commonly found in
fruits and honey.
• It is the sweetest
naturally occurring
carbohydrate.

Ribose
• Ribose is a pentose sugar,
it has a pentagonal ring.
• It forms the backbone of
RNA.
• Deoxyribose differs as
shown in the diagram and
forms the backbone of
DNA.

Monosaccharide Monomers are Joined by

Condensation Reactions to Form Polymers.
These polymers are joined by a glycosidic bond and
water is a waste product.

B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds
• Consist of two monosaccharides

Disaccharides • Are joined by a glycosidic
linkage
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose.

The bonding of two glucose units forms maltose. The glycosidic link
joins the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the number 4 carbon of the
second glucose. Joining the glucose monomers in a different
way would result in a different disaccharide.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H H O H 1– 4 H O H
H H H 1 glycosidic 4 H
OH H OH H OH H linkage OH H
HO
OH HO OH
OH
HO
O OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
H2O
Glucose Glucose Maltose
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
H O H O H H O H 1–2 O
H H H
1 glycosidic 2
OH H OH H HO OH H linkage
H HO
HO HO CH2OH HO O CH2OH
H OH OH H H OH OH H
H2O
Glucose Fructose Sucrose
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose.

Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose.
Notice that fructose, though a hexose like glucose, forms a
five-sided ring.
Examples of
Disaccharides
• Maltose (C12H22O11) is a dimer of glucose.

• Lactose (C12H22O11) is most found in milk.
• The two subunits that make up lactose are
glucose and galactose.
• Sucrose (C12H22O11) is also known as table
sugar.
• The two monosaccharides that make it up
are glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides
• Are polymers of sugars

• Serve many roles in
organisms
• Some important
polysaccharides are:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Chitin
5. Glycoproteins

Chloroplas
Starch
t
Amylose and
Amylopectin are
both forms of
1 m
starch and
made from
repeating
glucose units
Amylose
Amylopectin
Starch: a plant polysaccharide
• Starch is made by linking together α-glucose

molecules.
• The major storage form of glucose in plants.
1. Starch • All the glucose molecules in starch can be
orientated in the same way so the starch molecule
is curved, rather than straight.

2. Glycogen
• (C6H10O5)n :consists of glucose monomers.
• Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 -
4 on the next α-glucose.
• Branches occur where a condensation
reaction instead links carbon atom 1 – 6.
• The molecule is compact.
• Glycogen is the major storage form of glucose
in animals.
• It is stored in the liver and some muscles in
humans. The molecule
varies in size,
• Glycogen is useful in cells for glucose, and typically it
consequently energy, storage. consists of 30,000
units

B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants
• Cellulose is a major component of the tough walls

that enclose plant cells
3. Cellulose • It is a polymer of glucose
• Has different glycosidic linkages than starch

B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants
• Cellulose is made by linking together β-glucose molecules

• Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 4
on the next β-glucose.
3. Cellulose • The molecules are linked together with hydrogen bonds which
form bundles called cellulose microfibrils.
• This prevents plant cells from bursting, even under very high
(water) pressure.
• Cellulose is difficult to digest
• Cows have microbes in their stomachs to facilitate this
process
CH2O
H
O OH
4. Chitin
H
H
OH H
OH H
H NH
• Another important C O
CH
structural polysaccharide
3
• Is found in the (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton

(c) Chitin is used to make a
exoskeleton of of arthropods. This cicada
strong and flexible surgica
(a) The structure of the is molting, shedding its old
arthropods chitin monomer. exoskeleton and emerging
thread that decomposes a
the wound or incision hea
• Is found in the cell in adult form.
walls of fungi
• Can be used as
surgical thread

B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
5.
Glycoproteins
• A glycoprotein is a sugar-
protein molecule.
• Glycoproteins perform vital
biochemical and structural
functions.
• They enable cells to recognize
another cell as familiar or
foreign, which is called cell-cell
recognition.
• They also help cells attach to A glycoprotein is a compound containing carbohydrate (or
and bind other cells, which is glycan) covalently linked to protein. The carbohydrate may
be in the form of a monosaccharide, disaccharide(s).
called cell adhesion. oligosaccharide(s), polysaccharide(s), or their derivatives
(e.g. sulfo- or phospho-substituted).
B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
• ABO blood grouping is based on differences in the

type of glycoprotein (protein with carbohydrates
5. attached) present on the surface of red blood cells.
Glycoproteins • Type A individuals have type A glycoproteins.
– ABO • Type B individuals have type B glycoproteins.

• Type AB individuals have both.
• Type O individuals have neither.
Using Visualization S
oftware
• Select the glucose molecule and identify the colors used to
represent carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
• Using the models identify and describe the differences between
glucose, sucrose and fructose.
• Look at the amylose model and zoom out from it. Describe the
overall shape of the molecule.
• Zoom in on the amylose molecule. Each glucose sub-unit is
bonded to how many other sub-units? Which carbons atoms used
to form the glycosidic bonds? Are there any exceptions to these
rules?
• Select the amylopectin model and zoom in on the branch point.
This glucose sub-unit is bonded how many others and which
carbon atoms are used for bonded compared with the un-
branched amylose molecule?
• Using a similar approach to that above investigate the structure of
glycogen and find the similarities and differences between it and
both amylose and amylopectin.
Circle the
Sugars:

Lipids

B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids
Lipids
• Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic

molecules
• They are the one class of large biological
molecules that do not consist of polymers
• Share the common trait of being
hydrophobic
• Are constructed from two types of smaller
molecules, a single glycerol and usually
three fatty acids
• Vary in the length and number and
locations of double bonds they contain

Structure of Lipids
• Fatty acids are chains of

hydrogen and carbon and
are the building blocks of
lipids and fats (left).
• Phospholipids that make
up cell membranes have
two tails made of fatty
acid chains (right).

General Structure of a Fatty Acid
O
H 3C (CH2)n C
Chain (or ring) of carbon and
OH
hydrogen atoms
Carboxylic group

B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions
Major component of the cell membrane (phospholipids).
Fats in animals can serve as heat insulators while

sphingolipids in the myelin sheath (of neurons) can
serve as electrical insulators
Hormonal signaling.
Lipid
Functions Triglycerides may form a tissue layer around many key
internal organs and provide protection against physical
injury
• Triglycerides can be used as a long-term energy
storage source
• They are stored in specialized groups of cells called
adipose tissue

Triglyceride
3 Fatty Acid Chains + Glycerol

Triglycerides
• Triglycerides are formed by a

condensation reaction that
includes one glycerol molecule
and three fatty acids.
• Each fatty acid is bonded to the
glycerol molecule in three
condensation reactions therefore
three water molecules are
produced.
• The bonds are known as ester
bonds that form when a reaction
occurs between the –COOH groups
of the fatty acids and the –OH
groups of the glycerol molecule.

Triglycerides –
Function
• Triglycerides travel through

the circulatory system and are
either utilized immediately or are
stored in adipose tissue, thereby
serving as the most abundant
form of stored energy in the
body.
• Triglycerides can serve as this
important storage medium
because of their hydrophobicity,
which allows them to be stored
as droplets, without contact with
water molecules.
Triglycerides – Function
Triglyceride Levels
• In addition to serving as a source of
Less than 150
energy, triglycerides carry the fat- Normal
mg/dL
soluble vitamins (including vitamin
Borderline-high 150-199 mg/dL
K, an important nutrient in normal
blood coagulation). High 200-499 mg/dL
• Triglycerides also provide thermal Very high 500 mg/dL or above

insulation and contribute to the SOURCE: National Heart, Lung and
structure of membranes by the Blood Institute,
formation of a lipid bilayer. National Institutes of Health, U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services
• The amount of energy released in cell respiration per

gram of lipids is DOUBLE that for carbohydrates (and
protein).
Lipids • Lipids add 1/6 as much to body mass as
carbohydrates: fats are stored as pure droplets
Provide whereas when 1g glycogen is stored it is associated
with 2g of water.
Long-Term • This is especially critical for active animals as energy
stores must be carried.
Energy • However, glycogen is crucial as medium-term energy
storage because glycogen can be broken down to
Storage glucose rapidly
• Fats in adipose tissue cannot be mobilized as
rapidly
• Glucose can be used either in anaerobic or aerobic
cell respiration whereas fats and fatty acids can
only be used in aerobic respiration

Energy Storage
Immediate use – glucose.
Medium-term storage –
glycogen.
Long-term storage – lipids.


B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Types of Fats
1
Saturated – no double
bonds
2
Monounsaturated –
one double bond
3
Polyunsaturated –
more (2+) double
bonds
Saturated Fatty
Acids
• Have the
maximum number
of hydrogen Stearic acid
atoms possible
• Have no double
bonds
(a) Saturated fat and fatty acid
• Solid at room
temperature

Unsaturated Fatty
Acids
Unsaturated fatty
acids
• Have one or more double
bonds
• Liquid at room temperature
Types of unsaturated
Oleic acid fats:
• Trans
• Cis
(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid
cis double bond
causes bending
• Monounsaturated
• Polyunsaturated

Cis and Trans Unsaturated Fats

Cis-isomers Trans-isomers
Very common in nature Rare in nature – usually artificially produced to

produce solid fats, e.g. margarine from vegetable
oils.
the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the
carbon atoms two carbon atoms
The double bond causes a bend in the fatty acid The double bond does not causes a bend in the
chain fatty acid chain
Therefore cis-isomers are only loosely packed Trans-isomers can be closely packed
Triglycerides formed from cis-isomers have low Triglycerides formed from trans-isomers have high
melting points – they usually liquid at room melting points – they usually solid at room
temperature temperature

• There have been many claims about the effects of

Healthy vs different types of fat on human health.
Unhealthy • The main concern is coronary heart disease (CHD). In
Fats this disease the coronary arteries become partially
blocked by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot
formation and heart attacks.

A positive correlation has been found between saturated

fatty acid and trans fat intake and rates of CHD in many
studies.
Remember: correlation ≠ causation.
Genetic factors could be responsible.
Other aspects of the diet could explain the CHD rates.
Causal links for trans fats:

• Other risk factors have been tested, to see if they can account for the
correlation, but none did. Trans-fats therefore probably do cause CHD.
• In patients who had died from CHD, fatty deposits in the diseased
arteries have been found to contain high concentrations of trans-fats,
which gives more evidence of a causal link.

But what about
unsaturated fats as a
whole?
• There are populations that do not fit the

correlation such as the Maasai of Kenya.
• They have a diet that is rich in meat, fat, blood
and milk.
• They therefore have a high consumption of
saturated fats, yet CHD is almost unknown among
the Maasai.
• Diets rich in olive oil, which contains cis-

monounsaturated fatty acids, are
traditionally eaten in countries around the
Mediterranean.
• The populations of these countries typically have
low rates of CHD and it has been claimed that this
is due to the intake of cis-monounsaturated fatty
acids.

B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Phospholipi • Have only two fatty acids

ds • Have a phosphate group instead of a
third fatty acid

B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
Hydrophilic head
CH2 N(CH )
Phospholipi
Choline
3
CH2 3
O
O P O– Phosphate
d Structure CH2
O
CH CH2
Glycerol
O O
C OC O
Hydrophobic tails
Fatty acids
• Consists of a Hydrophilic
hydrophilic “head”
head
Hydrophobic
tails
and hydrophobic (c) Phospholipid

(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model
symbol
“tails”
• Results in a bilayer
arrangement found
in cell membranes
B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer
H3 C CH3
Steroids CH3 CH3
CH3
• Lipids characterized by a
carbon skeleton consisting of
four fused rings HO
• Types of steroids: cholesterol,

sex hormones,
adrenocorticoid.
• One steroid, cholesterol, is found
in cell membranes
• Steroids are involved in hormonal
signaling (e.g. estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone)

B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer
• The main feature, as in all lipids, is the large number

of carbon-hydrogens which make steroids non-polar.
Non-Polar • They can travel across the hydrophobic (or nonpolar)
Steroids interior of the plasma membrane whereas peptide
hormones are polar molecules that cannot travel
across the hydrophobic interior.

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IB Biology

1. In what ways do variations in form allow diversity

© Created by Alyssa 2023

B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition Include ABO antigens as an example.

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Carbon is the backbone of

An Forms large Proteins

Overview complex and

Organic Chemistry: the study

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Various Carbon Chains

(a) (c) Double bond

Fat droplets (stained red)

© Created by Alyssa 2023

• Isomers are molecules with H

the same molecular

formula but different H H H H H H H H

structures and properties X X H X

(b) Geometric isomers C C C C

• Enantiomers CH3 CH3

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Functional Group: a chemical group with distinct

Differences in one functional group may have

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Chemical Group Group Properties Examples

Hydroxyl group (—OH) Alcohol

The 7 Functional Ethanol

Groups in the Carbonyl group ( C ═ O) Ketone

• Carbonyl Acetic acid

• Carboxyl Amino group (—NH2) Amine

Methyl group (—CH3) Methylated

© Created by Alyssa 2023

• forms bonds between

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Monomers form larger molecules by condensation

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes a water

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Hydrolysis adds a water

© Created by Alyssa 2023

- energy released - energy invested

G = change in free energy = ability to do work

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

• Large molecules (polymers) composed

© Created by Alyssa 2023

You need to be able to identify

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Simple sugars (monosaccharides) are the

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between the

May be linear Can form rings

© Created by Alyssa 2023