Unit 3: Research Design LH 5

Concept, Features Types – descriptive, developmental, case studies,

causal-comparative, experimental, cross-sectional and longitudinal.
Basic principles of research design and criteria of a good research
design.
Concept of research design
• After selecting the issues of research, a researcher formulates a plan and
framework for completing his/her research work from the beginning till the end is
known as a research design.
• Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen
by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen
the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies for
success.
• It incorporates the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. It helps to allocate the limited resources by posing crucial methodology. It is
the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain the answer to
research questions.
• It cycles from problem selection, measurement tools, data collection, selection of
methods for the analysis of data, draw conclusions, and generalization of findings
based on the availability of resources and tools.
• It is an overall plan of completing the research work. It presents works of
research serially from the beginning to the end in a logical way.
• According to Kerlinger F.N., "Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of
investigations conceived so as to obtain answer of research questions and to control
variance."
• According to C.R. Kothari, "Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
qualities of data."
From the analysis of the above definitions, the following facts are found in the
research design.
• It is a framework of research that helps to collect, measurement and analysis
of data.
• It helps to select research methods considering limited resources.
• It is a plan and structure to find out the solution of the problem. It incorporates
the framework for hypothesis development and analysis of data.
• Research design expresses both the structure of the research problem, the
framework, organization or configuration of the relationship among variables of
a study, and the plan of the investigation used to obtain empirical evidence on
those relationships.
• It is a road map to start the process and conclude the research work.
Features of research design
Research design is a structure prepared to conduct research. A researcher
completes his/her research work based on the research design developed in
advance. It is prepared on the basis of certain procedures. Thus, it requires some
qualities which are given below:
1. Reliability:
Research design depends on reliability, consistencies, dependability, and stability.
If research design gives the same result when some tools are used in the same
sample then such research design is considered a reliable research design.
2. Objectivity:
Every research method must be accurate and objective. Sometimes researcher
imposes the respondents to give answers in the way that they can draw results as
they intend. Thus, appropriate research design checks such malpractices and
helps to draw the correct results.
3. Validity:
Validity is concerned with the integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a
piece of research. Under this method, data are tested and re-tested and prediction
of the future is made and such prediction remains correct. Thus, measurement
validity, internal and external validity is used for the measurement of the validity of
data and the tools.
4. Replicability:
Research design should be imitable so that another researcher follows the same
design to confirm the results of the research. A researcher should spell out his or
her procedures in detail otherwise replication of research design is impossible.
5. Generalizability:
Applying the research in a similar sector conducting research considering few
samples is known as generalizability. A research design should present all the
procedures and methods used in the collection and analysis of data so that people
know the situation and will be easier to implement the findings of the research in a
large population.
Basic principles of research design
Principles are the fundamental assumptions. There are some fundamental
assumptions in the selection of research design which are given below:
1. Principle of flexibility: Research design should be flexible enough. A researcher
may need to improve the design while conducting research because the researcher
may face the problem in the real field. To address such problems, the researcher
needs to change in design. Thus, the research design should be flexible.
2. Principle of timeliness: Research design should specify the time so that every
activity can be completed in time and the researcher can produce a research report in
time.
3. Principle of replication: Research design that is used by one researcher should
be replicable (can be copied) to others whoever likes to do so. It helps to test the
design in the different context and helps to theorize the findings.
4. Principle of objective: Research design should be developed in such a way so
that it gives the results in a specific and clear form. The results of the research
should not be emotional and subjective.
5. Principle of generalizability: research design is to be developed in such a way
that the findings developed from the research can be generalized in the large
population even though the findings are developed from the study of the sample.
6. Principle of reliability: Research design depends on reliability, consistencies,
dependability, and stability. If research gives the same result when same tools are
used in the same sample, then such research is considered as reliable research.
Research design should be developed in such a way so that it gives consistent
results.
7. Validity: Validity is concerned with the integrity of the conclusions that are
generated from a piece of research. Research design should specify the variables
that can measure the things that they want to measure.
Qualities of a good Research design
The qualities of a good research design are mentioned below:
Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured
with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance
with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
Good research is empirical:
It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
Good research is replicable:
This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decisions.
Descriptive Research Design
• Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population,
situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but
not why questions.
• It always targets to answer questions like how the situation happen, when in
terms of the time or date, where in terms of the place it happened, and what the
issue or phenomenon is.
• Descriptive research designs are used by researchers when they want to define
the problem and why it exists hence the use of varied designs that are added to
help the research process.
• Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify
characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.
• Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though
qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes.
Descriptive research is categorized in different research methods that have different
purposes in the research process. These methods can be used when conducting
descriptive research according to your goals and objectives.
Survey Method
• Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:
• The survey questions could use the open-ended or closed mode of questionnaires that
are going to be filled by the employees.
Common uses of survey research include:
• Social research: investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social
groups
• Market research: finding out what customers think about products, services, and
companies
• Health research: collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
• Politics: measuring public opinion about parties and policies
• Psychology: researching personality traits, preferences and behaviours
Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies, where you
collect data just once, and in longitudinal studies, where you survey
the same sample several times over an extended period.

Step 1: Define the population and sample

Populations
The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out
about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow.
Step 2: Decide on the type of survey
There are two main types of survey:
• A questionnaire, where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in
person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
• An interview, where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in
person and records the responses
Step 3: Design the survey questions
Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s
important to consider:
• The type of questions
There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many
surveys use a combination of both.
Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose
from. A closed-ended question can include:
• A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)
• A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree)
• A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)
• A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)

• The content of the questions

• The phrasing of the questions
• The ordering and layout of the survey
Step 4: Distribute the survey and collect responses

by mail, online, or in person

Step 5: Analyze the survey results

First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all

the responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly

completed responses.

Step 6: Write up the survey results

Observations
• Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and
accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand
how people act in real-life situations.
• Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before
you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the
subject under investigation.
• the observation method can use the qualitative through the collection of data in the form of observing the
behaviours and characteristics of the target sample. As we said earlier, the descriptive research aims at identifying
the real issue in the research problem, hence the research question allows them to have a deep insight into the
real issue. This will make them have enough data to analyse and come up with the right findings.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or
organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies
gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that
challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem.
Case-study design

• A case-study research design is used for the in-depth and detailed study of a
subject. This technique is usually used to narrow down a big problem into small
discrete easily researchable problems.

• The case study research design is useful to test the applicability of specific
theory or model on the real-life phenomena. A case-study research design is
useful in those scenarios where there is not much information is known or
available about the phenomena.

• The case-study research design has an important place in various disciplines

and professions such as sociology, political science, clinical science social
science, administrative science, and psychology.
a research strategy whose characteristics include
 a focus on the interrelationships that constitute the context of a specific entity
(such as an organization, event, phenomenon, or person),
 analysis of the relationship between the contextual factors and the entity being
studied, and
 the explicit purpose of using those insights (of the interactions between
contextual relationships and the entity in question) to generate theory and/or
contribute to extant theory.
Advantages of using Case study design
• The case-study research design delivers a thorough description of the
explicit and rare case.
• The case-study research design is widely opted by social scientists to test
modern real-life situations and provides an extension of the existing
concepts.
• The case-study research design can modify what is already known
through previous research.
• It gives the freedom to the researchers to apply various methodologies
and include any number of resources to investigate the problem.
• The case study research design excels at establishing a relationship
between a limited number of events or conditions and also helps us to
understand complex issues.
Disadvantages of using Case-study research design
• Sometimes research done on a small sample cannot be applied on a large
population. Therefore, a case study research design is difficult to establish
reliability and generalize.
• The researcher can be biased about the finding of the case because of the
intense exposure to the study.
• Case study research design does not enable the assessment of cause and
effect relationship.
• Missing important information can make the case hard to interpret.
• Sometimes the case may not be the representation of the larger case being
investigated.
• If research is being done on a specific situation or phenomenon then results
might be applicable to that particular case.
Developmental research design

Developmental research designs are techniques used particularly in

lifespan development research. When we are trying to describe
development and change, the research designs become especially
important because we are interested in what changes and what stays
the same with age.

Cross-sectional design :
This type of research design can only calculate among or from a variety of
people, phenomena or subjects at the place of change. It has three
distinguishing features such as no time dimensions, a dependence on the
existing differences, and selection of groups based on differences rather than
random selection
Advantages of using a cross-sectional design
• Cross-sectional research design is inexpensive to perform because this is done
using surveys.
• Results are more reliable because it is performed on a population.
• This study provides the characteristics of the result at a point in time.
• Grouping of the population is done based on their difference and are not
selected randomly.
• A cross-sectional study can use a large number of subjects, unlike many other
research designs.
Disadvantages of using cross-sectional study
• It is difficult to find people, phenomena or subjects of same interest.
• Outcomes are time-bound and do not provide any reliability for historical
occurrences.
• This study can’t be used to determine the cause and effect relationship.
• AS outcomes are time bound, therefore, there are chances of getting
different outcomes in different time-frame.