Routing Algorithms and

Routing in the Internet

Network Layer 4-1

Interplay between routing and
forwarding
routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-2

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
Graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-3

 Graph abstraction: costs
5 • c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or inversely related to
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

Network Layer 4-4

Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?
information?
Static:
Global:
 all routers have complete  routes change slowly
topology, link cost info over time
 “link state” algorithms
Dynamic:
Decentralized:
 router knows physically-
 routes change more
connected neighbors, link quickly
costs to neighbors  periodic update
 iterative process of
 in response to link
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors cost changes
 “distance vector” algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s algorithm Notation:

 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if not
 accomplished via “link
direct neighbors
state broadcast”
 D(v): current value of
 all nodes have same
info cost of path from source
 computes least cost paths
to dest. v
from one node (‘source”)  p(v): predecessor node
to all other nodes along path from source
 gives forwarding table to v
for that node  N': set of nodes whose
 iterative: after k iterations, least cost path
know least cost path to k definitively known
dest.’s
Network Layer 4-6
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-7

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-8

 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

A
1 1+e 2+e A 0 0 A
2+e 2+e A 0
D B D 1+e1 B D
0 0 0 0 B D 1+e1 B
0 e 0 0 1 1+e 0 e
1
C C C C
1
e
… recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing
Network Layer 4-9
Distance Vector Algorithm (1)
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic
programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y

Then

dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) }

where min is taken over all neighbors of x

Network Layer 4-10
 Bellman-Ford example (2)
5
3
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
x 1
y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table
Network Layer 4-11
Distance Vector Algorithm (3)
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 Distance vector: Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x knows cost to each neighbor v:
c(x,v)
 Node x maintains Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x also maintains its neighbors’
distance vectors
 For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-12

Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
 Each node periodically sends its own distance
vector estimate to neighbors
 When node a node x receives new DV estimate
from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate

Dx(y) converge the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-13

Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, Each node:
asynchronous: each
local iteration caused by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost of msg from neighbor)
 DV update message from
neighbor
Distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify changed, notify neighbors
their neighbors if
necessary

Network Layer 4-14

 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-15
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
x z
 updates routing info, recalculates 50

distance vector
At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,
 if DV changes, notify neighbors
and informs its neighbors.
“good
news At time t1, z receives the update from y and updates its table.
travels It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV

fast” At time t2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table.
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.

Network Layer 4-16

Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 good news travels fast
 bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem! 60
 44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes: see text
y
Poissoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to get to X :
4 1
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X
via Z) x z
 will this completely solve count to infinity problem? 50

Network Layer 4-17

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity Robustness: what happens
 LS: with n nodes, E links, if router malfunctions?
O(nE) msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between  node can advertise
neighbors only incorrect link cost
 convergence time varies  each node computes only
its own table
Speed of Convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires DV:
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
 may have oscillations incorrect path cost
 DV: convergence time varies
 each node’s table used by
others
 may be routing loops
• error propagate thru
 count-to-infinity problem network

Network Layer 4-18

Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 200 million administrative

destinations: autonomy
 can’t store all dest’s in  internet = network of
routing tables! networks
 routing table exchange  each network admin may
would swamp links! want to control routing in
its own network

Network Layer 4-19

Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers
Gateway router
into regions,  Direct link to router
“autonomous
in another AS
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS
run same routing
protocol
 “intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

Network Layer 4-20

Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d  Forwarding table is
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing routing algorithm
algorithm algorithm
 Intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding for internal dests
table
 Inter-AS & Intra-As
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-21
Inter-AS tasks AS1 needs:
 Suppose router in 1. to learn which dests
AS1 receives are reachable
datagram for which through AS2 and
dest is outside of AS1 which through AS3
 Router should forward 2. to propagate this
packet towards on of
the gateway routers,
reachability info to
but which one? all routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d
Network Layer 4-22
Example: Setting forwarding
table in router 1d
 Suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS
protocol that subnet x is reachable from
AS3 (gateway 1c) but not from AS2.
 Inter-AS protocol propagates
reachability info to all internal routers.
 Router 1d determines from intra-AS
routing info that its interface I is on the
least cost path to 1c.
 Puts in forwarding table entry (x,I).

Network Layer 4-23

Example: Choosing among multiple
ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS
protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and
from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should
forward packets for dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
 Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of
two routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the interface I that leads
protocol to
x is reachable via gateway to least-cost gateway.
determine
multiple gateways that has the Enter (x,I) in
costs of least-cost
smallest least cost forwarding table
paths to each
of the gateways

Network Layer 4-24

Intra-AS Routing
 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-25

RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y

Network Layer 4-26

RIP advertisements
 Distance vectors: exchanged among
neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25
destination nets within AS

Network Layer 4-27

RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops
to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D

Network Layer 4-28

 RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - - Advertisement
x - - from A to D
z C 4
…. … ...
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops
to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z BA 75
x -- 1
…. Routing….
table in D ....
Network Layer 4-29
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements
(if tables changed)
 link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong
loops (infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-30

RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-
level process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding network
forwarding table (IP)
(IP)
link table link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-31

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per

neighbor router
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than
TCP or UDP

Network Layer 4-32

OSPF “advanced” features (not in
RIP)
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion)
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path
in RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best
effort; high for real time)
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology
data base as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-33
Hierarchical OSPF

Network Layer 4-34

Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border
routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-35

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
1. Obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
2. Propagate the reachability information to all
routers internal to the AS.
3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based
on reachability information and policy.
 Allows a subnet to advertise its
existence to rest of the Internet: “I am
here”
Network Layer 4-36
 BGP basics
 Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over
semi-permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions
 Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical links.
 When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it
will forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards
the prefix.
 AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer 4-37
Distributing reachability info
 With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute this new prefix reach
info to all routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over
the 1b-to-2a eBGP session
 When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an
entry for the prefix in its forwarding table.

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
Network Layer 4-38
Path attributes & BGP routes
 When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 Two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert
for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router
to next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from
current AS to next-hop-AS.)
 When gateway router receives route advert,
uses import policy to accept/decline.

Network Layer 4-39

BGP route selection
 Router may learn about more than 1
route to some prefix. Router must
select route.
 Elimination rules:
1. Local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. Shortest AS-PATH
3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato
routing
4. Additional criteria

Network Layer 4-40

BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws
old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence
of UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer 4-41

 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

 A,B,C are provider networks
 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-42

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

 A advertises to B the path AW
 B advertises to X the path BAW
 Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since
neither W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-43

Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?

Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions
needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced
update traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-44