Chapter 6

Cell Structure &

Function

DR. APURBA BISWAS

MEDICAL OFFICER,
UPAZILA HEALTH COMPLEX, TUNGIPARA,
GOPALGANJ
ATTACH: MATS ,TUNGIPARA ,GOPALGANJ
 THE CELL

Definition of Cell

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit

of living organisms.
Parts of a typical human cell

The cell is composed of two basic parts:

• Cytoplasm • Nucleus

The outermost component inside which the cytoplasm and

nucleus lie is the plasma membrane or cell membrane.

A number of organelles and few inclusions are suspended in

a fluid called cytosol of the cytoplasm.

The cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus that lies at the centre of

the cell. The nucleus is the largest structure within the cell,
consisting of a nuclear envelope, chromatin and nucleolus.
 CELL
Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus

Organelles Inclusions 1.Nuclear

envelope
Membranous: Non-
membranous: 2.Chromatin
1.Mitochondria 1.Fat 3.Nucleolus
1. Ribosomes droplets
2.Endoplasmic 4.Nucleoplas
reticulum 2. Centrosomes 2.Glycogen m
3.Golgi Complex 3. Proteosomes granules
or Apparatus 4. Cytoskeleton 3.Lipofuscin
4.Lysosomes i. Microtubules 4.Hemosideri
5.Peroxisomes Ii. n
Microfilaments
Iii. Intermediate
filaments
PLASMA MEMBRANE / CELL MEMBRANE

Definition of Cell Membrane

The limiting membrane that envelops the cell
is called cell membrane or plasma membrane.

It forms a selectively permeable boundary of

the cell.
Structure of Plasma membrane / cell
membrane

The plasma membrane consists of two layers

of phospholipids containing cholesterol and
proteins (integral and peripheral) and some
carbohydrates (externally).
Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure:

Phospholipid bilayer :
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure is composed of
phospholipid bilayer which is formed by phosphate head and fatty acid tail.
Membrane Proteins:
i. Peripheral proteins: It contains proteins on its surface called
peripheral proteins.
ii. Integral proteins: Integral proteins are firmly embedded in the lipid
layers.
iii. Transmembrane proteins: Those that completely span the bilayer are
called transmembrane proteins.

Both the proteins and lipids may have externally exposed oligosaccharide
chains.
Functions of plasma (cell) membrane

1. Selective barrier: Regulates the passage of materials into

and out of the cell and allows the transport of specific
molecules.
2. Protective function: Acts as a physical barrier to enclose
cell contents.
3. Establishes and maintains an electrical charge difference
across the plasma membrane.

4. Functions in cell communication.

5. Plays a number of specific recognition and signaling

functions.
 CYTOPLASM

Cytoplasm is the jelly-like material inside the

plasma membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

Contents:
(1) Cytosol (a fluid component)
(2) Organelles
(3) Inclusions
 Organelles

Organelles are the cellular structures

embedded in the cytoplasm, which are
metabolically active structures.

Types: Organelles may be-

i. Membranous and
ii. Non-membranous
 Mitochondria

Definition of mitochondria:

Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed cytoplasmic

organelles, which are specialized for aerobic respiration and
production of energy (ATP - adenosine triphosphate).
Structure of Mitochondria

• Double Layer: Mitochondria have a double membrane.

• Cristae: The outer membrane is fairly smooth. But the inner
membrane is highly convoluted, forming folds called cristae.
The cristae greatly increase the surface area of the inner
membrane.
• Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules
which are involved in aerobic respiration and synthesis of ATP.
• Electron transport system : Because of these functions, the
enzymes and other protein molecules in cristae collectively
known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
Functions of mitochondria:

1. Synthesis of ATP - During aerobic cellular respiration

by digestion of fuel molecules (e.g., glucose) in the
presence of oxygen.
2. Production of energy- Mitochondria are called "power
house" of the cell, because they produce the energy
required for cellular functions.
3. Apoptosis - Mitochondria are involved in degradation
of cellular components at times called apoptosis, which
results in rapid cell death.
 Ribosomes

• Ribosomes are small electron-dense particles

found in the cytosol.
• Ribosomes are composed of four segments of
rRNA and about 80 different proteins.

Function: Synthesis of proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Definition :
A convoluted membranous network in the cytoplasm is called
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

Types:
There are two types –
i. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and
ii. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) contains ribosomes and is

involved in protein synthesis.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) does not contain ribosomes.
It is involved in lipid and carbohydrate synthesis.
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum:

1. Synthesis: Provides a place for chemical reactions -

(i) Smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis and
carbohydrate metabolism.
(ii) Rough ER synthesizes proteins for secretion,
incorporation into the plasma, membrane, and as
enzymes within lysosomes.
2. Transport: Moves molecules through cisternal space
from one part of the cell to another, sequestered away
from the cytoplasm.
3. Storage: Some newly synthesized molecules are
stored.
4. Detoxification: Smooth ER detoxifies both drugs and
alcohol.
 Golgi Apparatus or complex

Definition :
 Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is a
membrane-bound organelle, involved in the
processing of proteins.
 The Golgi apparatus consists of four to eight
stacks of closely folded flattened membranous
sacs.
Function of Golgi apparatus:
Golgi apparatus
(1) completes post-translational modifications of
proteins synthesized in the RER and then
(2) packages and addresses these proteins to
proper destinations.
 Lysosomes

Definition:
Lysosomes are membrane- limited vesicles formed by
the Golgi apparatus. They contain about 40 enzymes. .

Function:
Digest foreign material such as microbes (e.g. ingested
by the cell, worn- out cellular components, or the entire
cell).
 Cytoskeleton

Definition :
The cytoskeleton is a network of tiny protein
microtubules and microfilaments in the
cytoplasm of cell that controls cell shape,
maintains intracellular organization, and is
involved in cell movement.
Components / composition of cytoskeleton:

The cytoskeleton consists of tiny strands of protein.

There are three major classes of elements -
(i) Microtubules: the largest type of filament, with a
diameter of about 25 nanometers (nm), and are
composed of a protein called tubulin.
(ii) Microfilaments or actin filaments: are the smallest
type, with a diameter of only 5-7 nm.
(iii) Intermediate filaments: are mid-sized, with a
diameter of 8-10 nm, and are composed of different
subunit proteins.
 Functions of Cytoskeleton :

1. Cytoskeleton maintains intra-cellular structural support and

organization of cells; participates in cell division; facilitates
movement.
2. Microfilaments maintain cell shape; support microvilli; separate
two cells during cytokinesis; facilitate change in cell shape;
participate in muscle contraction.
3. Intermediate filaments provide structural support; stabilize
junctions between cells.
4. Microtubules maintain cell shape and rigidity; organize and
move organelles; support cilia and flagella; participate in vesicular
transport; separate chromosomes during the process of cell
division.
 NUCLEUS

Definition:
Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest
cellular component, which is the command centre
of the cell.
Nucleus is present in all cells in the body except
the red blood cells (RBC).
Structure of Nucleus:

1. Nuclear envelope: It is a double-layered membrane which forms a

selectively permeable barrier between the nuclear and cytoplasmic
compartments.
There is a narrow space between the two membranes of nuclear envelope,
called perinuclear space. The inner and outer nuclear membranes are
bridged at nuclear pore complexes.
2. Chromatin : It is a thread-like material made up of DNA, which is
extensively packaged by associating with basic proteins called histones. The
structural unit of DNA and histones is the nucleosome.
There are two types of chromatin - heterochro- matin and euchromatin.
When a cell begins to divide, the chromatin coils and condenses, forming
chromosomes.
3. Nucleolus: It is a generally spherical, highly basophilic subdomain of
nuclei in cells. It contains RNA and some proteins. It actively makes proteins.
 Functions of nucleus

(i) Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism,

protein synthesis, growth and reproduction (cell division).
(ii) Synthesis of RNA.
(iii) Formation of subunits of ribosomes.
(iv) Sending of genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for
protein synthesis through messenger RNA (mRNA).
(v) Storage and transformation of hereditary information
from one generation to the next
 Chromosomes

Definition :
Chromosome is the rod-shaped nuclear structure that
carries a complete blueprint of all the hereditary
characteristics.
 A chromosome is formed from a single DNA molecule
coiled around histone molecules.
 Cells of most tissues (somatic cells) contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes, called diploid cells because they contain
pairs of chromosomes.
 Each of these pairs of chromosomes contains one
chromosome derived from the mother and one from the
father.
 Germ cells or sex cells contain half the diploid number of
chromosome, called haploid cells.
 X and Y sex chromosomes contain genes determining
whether an individual will develop as a female or a male.
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-

stranded complex nucleic acid that carries the
genetic information to the offspring.

DNA is the genetic material of the cell, which

is responsible for controlling cell division.
Structure of DNA:

DNA consists of deoxyribose, phosphoric acid, and

four bases - two purines (adenine and guanine);
and two pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine). These
are arranged as two long chains that twist around
each other to form a double helix, joined by bonds
between the complementary components.
Nuclear DNA molecules are associated with
proteins (histones) to form chromatin.
Functions of DNA:

1. Transcription of DNA provides for the

expression of genetic information.
2. Replication of DNA provides for cell division.
 Gene

Gene is a portion of DNA that contains the

message or code for the synthesis of a
specific protein from amino acids.
TRANSPORT ACROSS PLASMA / CELL MEMBRANE

Membrane Transport

Passive mechanism Active mechanism

2. Vesicular transport
1. Simple diffusion 1. Active transport • Exocytosis
2. Facilitated diffusion • Primary • Endocytosis
3. Osmosis • Secondary • Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis
 Osmosis and diffusion

• Diffusion:
The continuous movement of molecules in a solution from a
higher concentration to lower concentration along the
concentration gradient is called diffusion.

• Osmosis:
Migration of solvent from the solution of lower concentration to the
higher concentration across a semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
OR
Osmosis is the movement of water down its concentration
gradient across a semipermeable membrane.
 Diffusion

Definition :
The continuous movement of molecules in a
solution from a higher concentration to lower
concentration along the concentration gradient is
called diffusion.
Characteristics of diffusion :

• Diffusion occurs in air as well as in water.

• It is a passive process - no energy is required to
make it happen.
• Simple diffusion does not require carrier protein
• Facilitated diffusion requires carrier protein.
Factors influencing diffusion :

Several factors influence the rate of diffusion, such as -

• Concentration gradient: The greater the concentration
gradient (the difference in particle concentration on either
side of the plasma membrane), the faster diffusion takes
place.
• Membrane electrical potential.
• Pressure difference across the membrane.
• Lipid solubility: ↑ lipid solubility →↑ rate of diffusion.
•Particle size (molecular weight): The smaller the particle
size, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Types of diffusion through cell membrane:

There are two subtypes –

1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
 Simple diffusion:
Unassisted net movement of small non-polar substances down
their concentration gradient across a selectively permeable
membrane.

Example - Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between

blood and body tissues.

 Facilitateddiffusion:
Movement of ions and small polar substances down their
concentration gradient across a selectively permeable
membrane with the help of a transport protein.

Example - Transport of glucose into cells by glucose carrier.

 Osmosis

Definition :
Osmosis is the passive movement of fluid
across a semipermeable membrane from an
area of lower solute concentration into an area
of higher solute concentration.
Characteristics of osmosis:

 Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a

membrane.
 Osmosis occurs across a selectively permeable membrane
that is freely permeable to water but not to solutes.
 In osmosis, water moves across a membrane toward the
solution that has the highest concentration of solutes.
 Osmosis stops when enough fluid has moved through the
membrane to equalize the solute concentration on both sides
of the membrane.
 The force with which osmosis occurs is called osmotic
pressure.
Definition of Active Transport :

Active transport is the energy requiring and carrier

mediated movement of substances across a
membrane against their concentration gradient
(from low to high concentration) or electrical
gradient.
 Differences between active transport and diffusion

Traits Active Transport Diffusion

1. Carrier required Yes No

2. Energy required Yes No

3. Transport against gradient Yes No

4. Transport along gradient No Yes

5. ATP hydrolysis Yes No

6. Direction of transport Unidirectional Can operate

bidirectionally
Summary of components of cell structure
Functions of human cell :

1. Movement Muscle and other contractile cells help in movement.

2. Epithelial cells form adhesive and tight junctions between cells.
3. Synthesize and secrete components of extracellular matrix - done by fibroblasts
and cells of bone and cartilage.
4. Neurons and sensory cells convert physical and chemical stimuli into action
potentials.
5. Synthesis and secretion of degradative enzymes
6. Synthesis and secretion of glycoproteins- done by cells of digestive glands.
done by cells of mucous-glands.
7. Synthesis and secretion of steroids by certain cells of the adrenal gland, testis,
and ovary.
8. Ion transport by cells of the kidney and salivary gland ducts.
9. Intracellular digestion by macrophages and neutrophils.
10. Lipid storage by fat cells.
11. Metabolite absorption by cells lining the intestine.
 The cell cycle

Definition
• The regular sequence of events that result in
new cells is termed the cell cycle.
OR
• The period between two cell divisions is
known as the cell cycle.
Phases of the cell cycle

The cell cycle has four different phases:

1. Mitosis (M phase)
2. G1 or first gap phase (the time gap between mitosis and
DNA replication)
3. S phase (the period of DNA synthesis)
4. G2 or second gap phase (the gap between DNA
duplication and the next mitosis).
 The phases G1, S, and G2 are together called the
interphase, which is the longest period.
 Sometimes cells do not continue round the cell cycle but
enter a resting phase called G0.
 Definition of cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into

two or more daughter cells.

 Types
Two types of cell division are:
i. mitosis and
ii. meiosis.
• Most body cells divide by mitosis to form new cells in order
to repair worn-out or damaged tissues.
• Formation of gametes (sex cells: ova and spermatozoa)
takes place by meiosis.
 MITOSIS

Definition:

Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a

single cell divides to produce two new genetically
identical daughter cells.
Interphase:
The period when the cell is not involved in mitosis, i.e.
between mitotic cell division, is known as interphase.

 A cell in interphase has an intact nucleus and visible

chromatin granules.
 Towards the end of interphase, the chromatin
replicates and becomes tightly coiled forming
double chromosomes, called chromatids, in
preparation for cell division.
Phases / Stages of mitosis Mitosis occurs
in four stages (phases)

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase :

During this stage the following changes occur -

 The nucleolus disappears and the replicated
chromatin condenses into discrete thread-like
chromosomes, each consisting of duplicate
sister chromatids joined by cohesins.
 The centrioles separate and migrate to
opposite poles of the cell.
 The mitotic spindle appears.
Metaphase :

The chromosomes condense further and attach to

the centre of the spindle at each centromere.
Anaphase :

• The sister chromatids (now called

chromosomes themselves) separate and
move toward opposite spindle poles.
Telophase:

• The two sets of chromosomes are at the spindle

poles and begin to uncoil.
• The nuclear envelope reforms around each set of
daughter chromosomes.
• Following telophase, the cytoplasm and plasma
membrane divide in half forming two identical
daughter cells, each with one nucleus.
 MEIOSIS

Definition
Meiosis is a specialized closely associated cell
division that process involving two unique and
occurs only in the cells that will form sperm
and egg cells.
Characteristic key features of Meiosis

(1) Early in the process the homologous chromosomes of each pair

(one from the mother and, one from the father) come together by
synapsis.
During synapsis double-stranded DNA breaks and repairs occur,
some of which result in reciprocal DNA exchanges called
crossovers between the aligned maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
Crossing over produces new combinations of genes in the
chromosomes in the germ cells.
(2) The cells produced are haploid. The union of haploid eggs and
sperms at fertilization forms a new diploid cell (the zygote).
Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Traits Mitosis Meiosis

1. Site of occurrence Somatic cells Sex or germ cells

2. Number of cell division One Two

3. Number of daughter cells produced Two Four

4. Number of chromosome in each daughter cell Diploid Haploid

5. Crossing over No Yes

6. Genetical identity to parent cells Identical Not identical

 Cell division and Cancer

 Abnormal cell division and cell growth will

enlarge the tissue and form a tumour (or
neoplasm), which may be benign or
malignant.
 The term cancer refers to an illness
characterized by malignant cells.