Chapter Two

Geology of Ethiopia and the Horn

Contents
• Geology defined
• Origin of the Continents/The Continental Drift Theory
• Forces of Change
• Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques
• Geological History of Ethiopia and the Horn
• Rock Types, Distribution and Associated Mineral Resources
 Geology Defined
• Geology is an earth science that studies about the formation,
structure and composition of the earth along with the forces that act
on the planet.
Formation: how (way) and when (age) the earth was formed;
Structure: how the earth looks like inside.
Composition: what makes up the earth's materials.
Forces of change: what kind of forces act on the planet to
produce its materials and surface structure.
 The Origin of the Universe and
the Continents
The Origin of the Universe
• The origin of the universe is better described in the "Big Bang" Theory
• The theory explains that the entire universe was created as a result of a huge
explosion at a point that is less than the size of an atom some 13.7 billion years
ago.
• Nothing existed before this explosion. It was, thus, the "Big Bang" that led to the
formation of:
Matter
Energy
Space
Time
 Cont'd
• It was from this explosion that the enormous and ever expanding
universe along with all what is in it was created.
• The earth, as a member of the universe, was created as a ball of hot
liquid (molten rock), which later crystallized to form the solid earth
some 4.6 billion years ago.
 Cont'd
Origin of the Continents
• The Continental Drift Theory explains how the present continents and oceans
took their present size, shape and position.
• The theory was developed by a German Climatologist called Alfred Wegener.
• The Theory asserts that all the present continents and oceans were ones
joined together forming a super continent called Pangaea and a super ocean
called Panthalassa.
• Later in time, Pangaea broke up to form two continents called:
• Laurasia (northern part): which later disintegrated to form N. America,
Europe and Asia;
• Gondwanaland (southern part): which later disintegrated to form S. America,
Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent.
 Cont'd
• As these continents drifted apart to take their present position, Panthalassa
dispersed to form the five major oceans and many more seas.
• Thus, according to this theory, it was the breaking up of Pangaea and the
drifting apart of its pieces that led to the formation of the present day
continents and oceans.
• The following are the evidences that Alfred Wegener forwarded to support his
theory of the Continental Drift.
 Coastline similarity/correlation: the coastlines of different continents
seem to fit to each other like a jigsaw. E.g. the of S. America and Africa
 Mountains correlation: fold mountains of the eastern coast of USA and
western cost of Europe are of the same age, structure and composition.
 Cont'd
Fossil evidences: fossils of similar terrestrial animals and shallow
water reptiles were discovered in different continents of distant
locations. E.g. similar fossils discovered in S. America and Africa.
Paleoclimate evidences: studies on the past climate of the earth
indicate that glacial scratches were found in tropical areas and
high deposits of coal over the mid and high latitudes of the world.
Glaciation is common in high latitudes
Coal forms from luxurious plant growth common in area
close to the equator.
 Forces of Change

• The earth is a dynamic planet that is in a continuous process of change.

• This change is caused by two types of forces acting on the planet. These are:
Internal (Endogenic) Forces: those that emanate from the earth's interior
including:
 Folding: bending of the earth's crust due to compressional forces (plates
moving against each other)
 Faulting: cracking of the earth's crust due to tensional forces (plates moving
apart from each other)
 Transform: plates moving
 Volcanism: outpouring of molten rocks, ashes, smoke from the earth's
interior onto its surface.
 Earthquake: sudden shaking of the earth's crust
 Cont'd
External (Exogenic) Forces: those that come from the earth's exterior including:
• Weathering: gradual breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces
• Erosion: wearing away of soil and rock fragments, their transportation and
sedimentation by water
Water erosion
Wind erosion in desert areas
Glaciation
Exfoliation due to temperature change in desert areas
Frost action in high altitude areas
Plants and animals actions
 Geological Time Scale and Age
Dating Techniques
Geological Time Scale
 The geological history is divided in to Eras. Each Era is divided into
periods and each period into epochs.
 The Eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed in
them. For instance, the Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of
invertebrates, the Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of reptiles
while the Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of mammals.
 Cont'd

These geological time divisions basically differ from each other in such
characteristics as
the relative position of land and sea,

the kind of climate and most important

the kind of animal and plant life that developed and existed
during that Era or period.
 Cont'd
The Eras of the GTS are:
Precambrian - 4.6 billion to 600 million ybp
Paleozoic - 600 million to 225 million ybp
Mesozoic - 225 million to 70 million ybp
Cenozoic - 70 million to the present

The Eras are further divided into periods and the Periods into a smaller
division called Epochs.
 Cont'd
Age Dating Techniques
There are two techniques of knowing the age of rocks: Relative and absolute age dating.
A. Relative Dating
 Relative dating uses geological evidence to assign comparative ages of fossils. We can
use two ways to know the relative age of a rock:
 one way is to look at any fossils the rock may contain. If any of the fossils are unique
to one of the geologic time periods, then the rock was formed during that particular
time period.
 Cont'd
 The second way is to use the "What is on top of the older rocks?" When
you find layers of rocks in a cliff or hillside, younger rocks are on top of
older rocks.

B. Absolute Dating
 Also known as Radiometric techniques.

 This technique was developed with discovery of radioactivity in 1896. The

regular rates of decay for unstable, radioactive elements were found to
constitute virtual “clocks” within the earth’s rocks.
 Cont'd

 Radioactive elements such as uranium (U) and thorium (Th) decay

naturally to form different elements or isotopes of the same element.
Every radioactive element has its own half-life.
 At the end of the period constituting one half-life, half of the original
quantity of radioactive element has decayed; after another half-life, half
of what was left is halved again, leaving one-fourth of the original, and
so on.
 Cont'd

Two of the major techniques include:

A. Carbon-14 Technique: Upon the organism’s death, carbon-14 begins to

disintegrate at a known rate, and no further replacement of carbon from
atmospheric carbon dioxide can take place. Carbon-14 has half-life of
5730 years. This technique is used to determine the age of fossils.

B. Potassium-Argon Technique: The decay is widely used for dating rocks.

Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in this way, because
potassium-40 is abundant in micas, feldspars, and hornblendes.
 Cont'd
Geological processes and associated landforms in Ethiopia and the Horn
A. Precambrian Era (4.6 bn - 600mn ybp)
 largest and remotest
 not much is known due to remoteness and lack of fossil evidences
 crystallization or solidification of the earth and formation of the crust;
 formation of the basement complex or crystalline basement complex
rocks;
 mountain building processes (orogenesis)
 Volcanism
 Cont'd

B. Paleozoic Era (600 mn - 225mn ybp)

denudation: erosion and deposition; lowering of the earth's
altitude
peneplanation: leveling of the land
flattening flattening of the earth's surface
 Cont'd
C. Mesozoic Era
 has three periods; Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
 era of alternate sinking and rising of land that was accompanied by
the transgression and regression of water, respectively, in Ethiopia
and the Horn.
 the sinking started in the Triassic period at the southeast being
followed by transgression of water from the sea and continued ti
the northwest.
 the transgression of the sea brought sediments onto the land to
form sandstone called the Adigrat Sandstone.
 Cont'd
 during the Jurassic period, the land remained under the sea leading
to the formation of the Hintalo Limestone as remains of sea animals
accumulated along with precipitates from the sea.
 in late Jurassic, the land began to uplift in the NW and the process
continued in the Cretaceous period.
 in the Cretaceous period, the uplifting that was initiated during the
Jurassic period from the NW to the SE direction continued causing
regression of the invading water to the SE.
 this led to the formation of the third sedimentary rock layer over the
region called the Upper Sandstone.
 the Adigrat Sandstone is older and thicker at the SE and younger and
thinner at the NW.
 Cont'd
 the Hintalo Limestone is more or less uniform both in terms of age and
thickness.
 the Upper Sandstone is older and thinner at the NW and younger and
thicker at the SE.
D. Cenozoic Era (70 million to the present)
it is the most recent era and includes the present time.
it was an era of immense tectonic and volcanic activities that shaped the
present landscape of Ethiopia and the Horn.
the Era has two periods;
Tertiary and
Quaternary.
 Cont'd
Major geologic activities of the Tertiary Period
The land was subjected to two major geologic events and other
geologic processes of lesser magnitude but still important. These
geologic activities are:
Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of huge
quantity of lava.
Formation of the Rift Valley.
Quaternary volcanism and deposition.
 Cont'd
Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of huge
quantity of lava.
the uplifting that was initiated during the upper Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic era was continued with a
greater scale to form greater heights over the region, where the
Arabo-Ethiopian land was uplifted as a unit landmass.
this raised the land over 2000m asl.
the uplifting was of highest magnitude over central Ethiopia making
the region attain greater height.
 Cont'd
tectonic activities created fractures or fissures through which
immense lava, called Trappean Lava or Trap Lava Series, flows over
the Mesozoic sedimentary rocks to form the country's volcanic
mountains and plateau lands.
 where the lava poured out through vents, it formed volcanic
mountains; and
 where the lava poured out through fissures, it formed the
extensive volcanic plateau lands.
this made the central highlands attain their greatest heights.
 Cont'd
The Formation of the Rift Valley
• the Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East African Rift Valley
system which was formed in the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era.
• its formation was associated with tectonic activities; faulting, due to
tensional forces, that led to the formation of parallel faults or cracks.
• as the land between the cracks sank down or subsided, the Rift Valley
was formed.
• the Great East African Rift Valley stretches from Port Biera of
Mozambique to Dead Sea in Syria.
 Cont'd
Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley
has a total length of 7200 kms;
5600 kms in Africa;
1700 kms in Ethiopia and Eritrea.
its widest part on land is at the Afar Triangle where it is 200 - 300
kms wide.
the Red Sea, Gulfof Aden and the African systen meet at the Afar
depression (Afar Triangle) with Kobar Sink being the lowest point
lying at 125 m bsl.
 Cont'd
• the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden occupy the floor of the Rift Valley.
Geologic events of the Quaternary Period
 Aden volcanic series formed most of the active and dormant volcanoes
 cooling of the earth's climate causing last ice age in the mid and high latitudes and
fluvial or pluvial rains in the tropics
 large lakes and inland seas, some lakes merged
 erosion and deposition
 warming of the earth's climate causing high evaporation
 lakes reduced in size, some totally dried up
 formation of salt plains in the Afar area
 formation of lacustrine and fluvial deposits
 Cont'd
Exercise
• Discuss the types of rocks that cover the Ethiopian environment along
with the mineral resources associated with them.