Quantum Theory L4

Quantum theory
Failures of the classical theory

The most outstanding problems among them
were
(i) the explanation of line spectrum emitted by
elements in gaseous state
(ii) the emission of electrons when metals are
exposed to high frequency radiation—the
photoelectric effect,
(iii) the distribution of energy in the spectrum of
a black body
Blackbody radiation
 The thermal radiation emitted by a hot body, in general,
depends on the composition and the temperature of the
body.
 However, there is a class of bodies, called black bodies, which
emit thermal radiation whose quantity and quality depend
only on their temperature.
 For this reason the radiation emitted by such bodies is called
the thermal radiation. Such bodies are named black bodies
because they absorb all the radiation that falls on it
 When a black body is maintained at constant high
temperature, the emitted radiation is called the black body
radiation
Blackbody radiation
 For experimental purposes a cavity having a small hole can be
regarded as a perfect black body because of its identical behavior
with that of the perfectly black body.
 If radiation is allowed to enter such a cavity, it is reflected back and
forth at the inner walls of the cavity and at each reflection some
portion of energy is absorbed.
 After suffering a large number of reflections at the walls it is
completely absorbed in the cavity. Therefore at lower temperature
the hole appears black.
 When the cavity is maintained at higher temperature the radiation
that comes out of the hole is similar to that emitted by a black
body at the same temperature. Thus, a cavity with a small hole
acts like a black body.
Spectral distribution of energy in thermal
radiation
1. At a particular temperature the spectral energy density increases with
wavelength and attains a maximum value and then falls to zero for
longer wavelengths.
2. 2. As the temperature is increased, the wavelength max corresponding
to maximum energy density shifts towards the shorter wavelength
region. It was experimentally found by Wein that
This relation is known as Wein’s displacement law.

3. As the temperature is increased the total energy density u for all
wavelengths increases. It was found that the total energy density, which is
equal to the area under the curve is proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature
Spectral distribution
Classical theories about black body
Wein’s Law : From thermodynamic reasoning alone
showed that energy density in black body radiation is
given by
) where c1 and c2 are empirical constants.
By proper choice of these constants Wein’s law can be

made to fit the experimental curve in the shorter
wavelength region alone but fails in the longer
wavelength region.
Classical theories about blackbody
Rayleigh and Jeans Law : The radiation in a
cavity is electromagnetic in nature. In a metallic
cavity whose walls are perfectly reflecting, the
superposition of incident and reflected waves of
each frequency results in the formation of
standing waves with nodes at the walls. The
number of standing waves (or modes) per unit
volume in the frequency range and + d is given
by:
Classical theory about radiation
 A glance at the Rayleigh-Jeans
formula, which is a rigorous
consequence of classical physics,
reveals that it fails to explain the
experimental results in the higher
frequency (lower wavelength)
region.
 Instead of finite energy density, it
predicts infinite energy density at
extremely short wavelengths
ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
 This discrepancy between the
theory and the experiment was
dramatically called ultraviolet
catastrophe.
Planck’s radiation law
 The failure of Rayleigh-Jeans law led Planck to think that it
was not possible to obtain a correct radiation law within
the framework of classical physics.
 Planck assumed that the walls of the cavity consist of
microscopic oscillators. In thermal equilibrium the
absorption and emission of radiation by these oscillators
take place at equal rate.
 According to Planck’s hypothesis the emission and
absorption of radiation by an oscillator take place in the
form of discrete packets of energy called photons, whose
energy is proportional to the frequency of radiation.
Planck’s radiation law
The energy density is given by
Limiting cases of Planck’s law
In the lower frequency (higher wavelength)
range the Planck’s radiation law reduces to
Rayleigh-Jeans law. In the limit <<1
It reduces to which is Rayleigh-Jeans law
In the limit: >>1 it reduces to which is Wien’s law
at low wavelength
Photo electric effect
Do on your own:
- Procedure
- Observations
- Assumptions
- Necessary equations
- deductions
Compton effect
Please do on your own:
- Description
- Explanation
- mathematics
X-ray generation
Homework“?
- Description
- Diagrams
- Spectrum
- explanation
Wave particle duality
 Particles have wavelike properties and waves have particle like
properties.
 The associated wavelength of particles is given by the equation:
Reasoning:
- entire physical universe is composed of matter and radiation
- In quantum theory of radiation a fragment or quantum of energy
is assigned a frequency, (=2) such that . Although there is no
physical sense of frequency , nevertheless the theory based on this
assumption works well. From this notion de Broglie speculated
that material particles, which are also fragment of energy (e.g., =
mc2), might be assigned some characteristic frequency.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
 it is impossible to determine both position and
momentum simultaneously with perfect accuracy.
 If x is the uncertainty in position and px is the
uncertainty in the corresponding momentum then
Similarly if E is the uncertainty in energy and t is

uncertainty in time then
Good day. Thank you

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Quantum theory

Failures of the classical theory

This relation is known as Wein’s displacement law.

) where c1 and c2 are empirical constants.

By proper choice of these constants Wein’s law can be

Similarly if E is the uncertainty in energy and t is

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