Data Mining:

Concepts and
Techniques
— Slides for Textbook —
— Chapter 3 —

©Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber

Intelligent Database Systems Research Lab
School of Computing Science
Simon Fraser University, Canada
http://www.cs.sfu.ca
Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 1
 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 2
 Why Data Preprocessing?

 Data in the real world is dirty


incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking
certain attributes of interest, or containing only
aggregate data

noisy: containing errors or outliers

inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes
or names
 No quality data, no quality mining results!

Quality decisions must be based on quality data

Data warehouse needs consistent integration of
quality data
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 Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data
Quality

 A well-accepted multidimensional view:

 Accuracy

 Completeness

 Consistency

 Timeliness

 Believability

 Value added

 Interpretability

 Accessibility

 Broad categories:
 intrinsic, contextual, representational, and

accessibility.
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 Major Tasks in Data
Preprocessing

 Data cleaning
 Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or
remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
 Data integration
 Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
 Data transformation
 Normalization and aggregation
 Data reduction
 Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces
the same or similar analytical results
 Data discretization
 Part of data reduction but with particular importance,
especially for numerical data
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 Forms of data
preprocessing

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 7
 Data Cleaning

 Data cleaning tasks

 Fill in missing values
 Identify outliers and smooth out noisy
data
 Correct inconsistent data

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 Missing Data
 Data is not always available
 E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
 Missing data may be due to
 equipment malfunction
 inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
 data not entered due to misunderstanding
 certain data may not be considered important at the
time of entry
 not register history or changes of the data
 Missing data may need to be inferred.
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 How to Handle Missing
Data?
 Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing
(assuming the tasks in classification—not effective when the
percentage of missing values per attribute varies considerably.
 Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
 Use a global constant to fill in the missing value: e.g.,
“unknown”, a new class?!
 Use the attribute mean to fill in the missing value
 Use the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same
class to fill in the missing value: smarter
 Use the most probable value to fill in the missing value:
inference-based such as Bayesian formula or decision tree
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 Noisy Data

 Noise: random error or variance in a measured

variable
 Incorrect attribute values may due to
 faulty data collection instruments

 data entry problems

 data transmission problems

 technology limitation

 inconsistency in naming convention

 Other data problems which requires data cleaning

 duplicate records

 incomplete data

 inconsistent data
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 How to Handle Noisy Data?
 Binning method:
 first sort data and partition into (equi-depth) bins

 then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by

bin median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

 Clustering
 detect and remove outliers

 Combined computer and human inspection

 detect suspicious values and check by human

 Regression
 smooth by fitting the data into regression

functions
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 Simple Discretization Methods:
Binning
 Equal-width (distance) partitioning:
 It divides the range into N intervals of equal size:

uniform grid
 if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the

attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B-A)/N.

 The most straightforward

 But outliers may dominate presentation

 Skewed data is not handled well.

 Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning:

 It divides the range into N intervals, each

containing approximately same number of samples

 Good data scaling

 Managing categorical attributes can be tricky.

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 Binning Methods for Data
Smoothing
* Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25,
26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
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 Cluster Analysis

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 Regression
y

Y1

Y1’ y=x+1

X1 x

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 17
 Data Integration
 Data integration:
 combines data from multiple sources into a

coherent store
 Schema integration
 integrate metadata from different sources

 Entity identification problem: identify real world

entities from multiple data sources, e.g., A.cust-

id  B.cust-#
 Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
 for the same real world entity, attribute values

from different sources are different

 possible reasons: different representations,

different scales, e.g., metric vs. British units

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 Data in Data
Integration
 Redundant data occur often when integration of
multiple databases
 The same attribute may have different names in
different databases
 One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in
another table, e.g., annual revenue
 Redundant data may be able to be detected by
correlational analysis
 Careful integration of the data from multiple sources
may help reduce/avoid redundancies and
inconsistencies and improve mining speed and
quality Data Mining: Concepts and
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 Data
Transformation

 Smoothing: remove noise from data

 Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction
 Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing
 Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified
range

min-max normalization

z-score normalization

normalization by decimal scaling
 Attribute/feature construction

New attributes constructed from the given ones
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 Data Transformation:
Normalization
 min-max normalization
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
 z-score normalization
v  meanA
v' 
stand _ devA
 normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(| v ' |)<1
10

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 22
 Data Reduction
Strategies
 Warehouse may store terabytes of data: Complex
data analysis/mining may take a very long time to
run on the complete data set
 Data reduction
 Obtains a reduced representation of the data set

that is much smaller in volume but yet produces

the same (or almost the same) analytical results
 Data reduction strategies
 Data cube aggregation

 Dimensionality reduction

 Numerosity reduction

 Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

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 Data Cube Aggregation
 The lowest level of a data cube

the aggregated data for an individual entity of
interest

e.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse.
 Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes

Further reduce the size of data to deal with
 Reference appropriate levels

Use the smallest representation which is enough to
solve the task
 Queries regarding aggregated information should be
answered using data cube,
Data when
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 Dimensionality Reduction
 Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection):
 Select a minimum set of features such that the

probability distribution of different classes given the

values for those features is as close as possible to the
original distribution given the values of all features
 reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to

understand
 Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices):
 step-wise forward selection

 step-wise backward elimination

 combining forward selection and backward

elimination
 decision-tree induction
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 Example of Decision Tree Induction

Initial attribute set:

{A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6}
A4 ?

A1? A6?

Class 1 Class 2 Class 1 Class 2

> Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}

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 Data Compression
 String compression

There are extensive theories and well-tuned
algorithms

Typically lossless

But only limited manipulation is possible without
expansion
 Audio/video compression


Typically lossy compression, with progressive
refinement

Sometimes small fragments of signal can be
reconstructed without reconstructing the whole
 Time sequence is not audio


Typically
December 17, 2024 short and vary slowly with time
Data Mining: Concepts and
Techniques 28
 Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

os sy
l
Original Data
Approximated

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 Wavelet Transforms
Haar2 Daubechie4
 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal
processing
 Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
 Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better
lossy compression, localized in space
 Method:
 Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0s, when
necessary)
 Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
 Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
 Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

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 Principal Component Analysis

 Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c

<= k orthogonal vectors that can be best used
to represent data
 The original data set is reduced to one
consisting of N data vectors on c principal
components (reduced dimensions)
 Each data vector is a linear combination of the c
principal component vectors
 Works for numeric data only
 Used when the number of dimensions is large
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 Principal Component Analysis

X2

Y1
Y2

X1

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 Numerosity Reduction
 Parametric methods

Assume the data fits some model, estimate
model parameters, store only the parameters,
and discard the data (except possible outliers)

Log-linear models: obtain value at a point in m-
D space as the product on appropriate marginal
subspaces
 Non-parametric methods

Do not assume models

Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling

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 Regression and Log-Linear
Models

 Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight

line
 Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
 Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to
be modeled as a linear function of multidimensional
feature vector
 Log-linear model: approximates discrete
multidimensional probability distributions
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 Regress Analysis and Log-
Linear Models
 Linear regression: Y =  +  X
 Two parameters ,  and  specify the line and

are to be estimated by using the data at hand.

 using the least squares criterion to the known

values of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….

 Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
 Many nonlinear functions can be transformed

into the above.

 Log-linear models:
 The multi-way table of joint probabilities is

approximated by a product of lower-order

tables.

Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd
 Histograms

 A popular data 40
reduction technique 35
 Divide data into 30
buckets and store
25
average (sum) for
each bucket 20
 Can be constructed 15
optimally in one
10
dimension using
dynamic programming 5
 Related to 0
quantization problems.
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
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 Clustering

 Partition data set into clusters, and one can store

cluster representation only
 Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if
data is “smeared”
 Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in
multi-dimensional index tree structures
 There are many choices of clustering definitions
and clustering algorithms, further detailed in
Chapter 8 Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 37
 Sampling

 Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is

potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
 Choose a representative subset of the data

Simple random sampling may have very poor
performance in the presence of skew
 Develop adaptive sampling methods
 Stratified sampling:


Approximate the percentage of each class (or
subpopulation of interest) in the overall database

Used in conjunction with skewed data
 Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a
time).
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 Sampling

W O R
SRS le random
i m p ho ut
( s e wi t
l
samp ment)
p l a ce
re

SRSW
R

Raw Data
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 Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

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 Hierarchical Reduction
 Use multi-resolution structure with different degrees
of reduction
 Hierarchical clustering is often performed but tends
to define partitions of data sets rather than
“clusters”
 Parametric methods are usually not amenable to
hierarchical representation
 Hierarchical aggregation
 An index tree hierarchically divides a data set into

partitions by value range of some attributes

 Each partition can be considered as a bucket

 Thus an index tree with aggregates stored at each

node is a hierarchical histogram

Data Mining: Concepts and
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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 42
 Discretization
 Three types of attributes:
 Nominal — values from an unordered set

 Ordinal — values from an ordered set

 Continuous — real numbers

 Discretization:
 divide the range of a continuous attribute into

intervals
 Some classification algorithms only accept

categorical attributes.
 Reduce data size by discretization

 Prepare for further analysis

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 Discretization and Concept
hierachy

 Discretization
 reduce the number of values for a given
continuous attribute by dividing the range of
the attribute into intervals. Interval labels can
then be used to replace actual data values.
 Concept hierarchies
 reduce the data by collecting and replacing
low level concepts (such as numeric values for
the attribute age) by higher level concepts
(such as young, middle-aged, or senior).
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 Discretization and concept
hierarchy generation for numeric
data

 Binning (see sections before)

 Histogram analysis (see sections before)

 Clustering analysis (see sections before)

 Entropy-based discretization

 Segmentation by natural partitioning

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 Entropy-Based Discretization
 Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two
intervals S1 and S2 using boundary T, the entropy
after partitioning is | |
S1 Ent (
| | S 2 Ent ( )
E (S ,T ) 
|S| S1 | S |
)  S2
 The boundary that minimizes the entropy function
over all possible boundaries is selected as a binary
discretization.
 The process is recursively applied to partitions
obtained until some stopping criterion is met, e.g.,
Ent ( S )  E (T , S )  
 Experiments show that it may reduce data size and
improve classification accuracy
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 Segmentation by natural
partitioning

3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data into

relatively uniform, “natural” intervals.
* If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at
the most significant digit, partition the range into 3
equi-width intervals
* If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 4 intervals
* If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 5 intervals
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 Example of 3-4-5 rule
count

Step 1: -$351 -$159 profit $1,838 $4,700

Min Low (i.e, 5%-tile) High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) Max
Step 2: msd=1,000 Low=-$1,000 High=$2,000

(-$1,000 - $2,000)
Step 3:

(-$1,000 - 0) (0 -$ 1,000) ($1,000 - $2,000)

(-$4000 -$5,000)
Step 4:

($2,000 - $5, 000)

(-$400 - 0) (0 - $1,000) ($1,000 - $2, 000)
(0 -
($1,000 -
(-$400 - $200)
$1,200) ($2,000 -
-$300) $3,000)
($200 -
($1,200 -
$400)
(-$300 - $1,400)
($3,000 -
-$200)
($400 - ($1,400 - $4,000)
(-$200 - $600) $1,600) ($4,000 -
-$100) ($600 - ($1,600 - $5,000)
$800) ($800 - ($1,800 -
$1,800)
(-$100 - $1,000) $2,000)
0) Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 48
 Concept hierarchy generation for
categorical data

 Specification of a partial ordering of attributes

explicitly at the schema level by users or experts
 Specification of a portion of a hierarchy by
explicit data grouping
 Specification of a set of attributes, but not of
their partial ordering
 Specification of only a partial set of attributes

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 Specification of a set of
attributes
Concept hierarchy can be automatically
generated based on the number of distinct
values per attribute in the given attribute set.
The attribute with the most distinct values is
placed at the lowest level of the hierarchy.

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 65 distinct

values
city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

Data Mining: Concepts and
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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Why preprocess the data?

 Data cleaning
 Data integration and transformation
 Data reduction
 Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation
 Summary Data Mining: Concepts and
December 17, 2024 Techniques 51
 Summary

 Data preparation is a big issue for both

warehousing and mining
 Data preparation includes
 Data cleaning and data integration
 Data reduction and feature selection
 Discretization
 A lot a methods have been developed but still an
active area of research
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December 17, 2024 Techniques 52
 References
 D. P. Ballou and G. K. Tayi. Enhancing data quality in data warehouse
environments. Communications of ACM, 42:73-78, 1999.
 Jagadish et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of
the Technical Committee on Data Engineering, 20(4), December 1997.
 D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999.
 T. Redman. Data Quality: Management and Technology. Bantam Books,
New York, 1992.
 Y. Wand and R. Wang. Anchoring data quality dimensions ontological
foundations. Communications of ACM, 39:86-95, 1996.
 R. Wang, V. Storey, and C. Firth. A framework for analysis of data quality
research. IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data Engineering, 7:623-640,
1995.

Data Mining: Concepts and

December 17, 2024 Techniques 53
 http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~han

Thank you !!!

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