CONDUCTION

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (k)

• Ability of material to conduct heat.

• It is also defined as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit temperature
difference.
• A high value of k indicates good thermal
conductor and a low value indicates
thermal insulator.
• It is highest in case of pure metal and
decrease with increase in impurity.
• The unit of thermal conductivity is W/mk or
w/m0c.

• It depend essentially on the following factor

1.Material structure
2.Moisture content
3.Density of material
4.Pressure and Temperature
ASSUMPTIONS-: FOURIER LAW
1. Steady state conduction heat transfer.
2. One directional heat flow
3. Bounding surfaces are isothermal in
character i.e., constant and uniform
temperatures are maintained at the two
faces.
4. Isotropic and homogeneous material.
5. Constant temperature gradient and a
linear temperature profiles.
6. No internal heat generation.
FOURIER LAW -:
• The French scientist J.B.J Fourier has
proposed the law in 1822.It is empirical
law based on observation.
• The Fourier law states that the rate of heat
conduction per unit area (heat flux) is
directly proportional to the temperature
gradient.
 FOURIER LAW -:

It states that the time rate of heat transfer

through the material is proportional to the
negative gradient in the temperature and
to the area, at the right angles to that
gradient, through which the heat is
flowing.
• Where,
Q = rate of heat transfer (W).
A = heat transfer area in m2.
dt = temperature difference of the faces of

the block.
dx = thickness of the body in the direction
of the flow.
k = constant of proportionality and is
known as thermal conductivity of
material.
• The –ve sign of k is to take care of
decreasing temperature along with the
direction of heat flow.

• The temperatute gradient (dt/dx) is

alaways negative along positive x direction
and therefore the value of Q become
positive.
FEATURES-:

• It is applicable to all matter.(solid, liquid or

gases.)
• It is based on the experimental evidence
and hence cannot be derived.
• It helps to determine thermal conductivity
(k) of the medium through which heat is
conducted.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATE

• Consider the flow of heat through an

infinitesimal volume element oriented in a
three-dimensional co-ordinate system Fig.
The sides dx, dy and dz have been taken
parallel to the x,y and z axis respectively.
• The general conduction equation can be
set up by applying Fourier equation in
each cartesian direction. If k represents
the thermal conductivity at the left face,
then quantity of heat flowing into the
control volume through this face during
time interval dτ is given by
• Heat influx:
t
Qx  kx (dy.dz ) .d ...........(i )
x
• Accumulation of heat in the elemental volume
due to heat flow in the x-direction is given by
the difference between heat influx and heat
efflux. Thus the heat accumulation due to
heat flow in x-direction is


 Qx  dx
x
  t 
    kx  ( dy.dz ) .d  dx
x  x 

  t 
   kx
 dx.dy.dz.d
x  x 
• Likewise the heat accumulation in the
control volume due to heat flow along y-
and z-directions will be: -

  t 
  ky   dx.dy.dz.d .............(iv)
y  y 

  t 
  kz   dx.dy.dz.d .............(v)
Z  Z 
• Sum of heat accumulations as prescribed
by equations (i), (ii) and (iii) gives the total
heat stored in the elemental volume due to
heat flow along all the co-ordinate axes.

Total or net accumulation of heat is equal

to
   t    t    t  
  kx    ky    kz   dx.dy.dz.d .........(vi )
 x  x  y  y  z  z  
• If q is the heat generated per unit volume and
per unit time, then the total heat generate in
the control volume equals to
Q ' g qg (dx.dy.dz ).d …................(vii)

• The total heat accumulated in the lattice due

to heat flow along all the co-ordinate axes Eq.
(vi) and the heat generated within the lattice
Eq (vii) together serve to increase the thermal
energy of the lattice. This increase in thermal
energy is given by:
• where p is the density and c is the specific
heat of the material. Thus from energy
balance considerations.

• This expression, known as the general

heat conduction equation.
 Homogeneous and isotropic
material:
• A homogeneous material implies that the
properties i.e., density, specific heat and
thermal conductivity of the material are
same everywhere in the material system.
Isotropic means that these properties are
not directional characteristics of the
material, i.e., they are independent of the
orientation of the surface.
• Therefore for an isotropic and
homogeneous material thermal
conductivity is same at every point and in
all direction. In that case kx= ky = kz = k
and the differential equation (viii) takes the
form.

• Where α is known as thermal diffusivity.

• Thermal diffusivity denoted by ‘α’ of a
material is the ratio of its thermal
conductivity ‘k’ to the thermal storage
capacity ‘pc’.
• Thermal diffusivity (α) = k/ pc.
• Larger the value of α the faster will the
heat diffuse through the material & its
Temperature change with time.
CASES-:
• CASE-1 (Fourier equation)
 When no internal source of heat
generation is present
• CASE-2 (Poisson equation)
 When temperature does not depend on
time.
• CASE-3 (Laplace equation)
 In absence of internal heat generation &
temperature does not depend on time.
GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
IN CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE

• When heat passes through systems

having cylindrical geometries (e.g.
conduction through rods and pipes) it is
considered more convenient to work in the
cylindrical co-ordinates. The general heat
equation can be set up by considering an
infinitesimal cylindrical volume element.
 writing energy balance equations in the
radial, tangential and axial directions.
(a)Radial direction
Heat influx

Heat efflux
Heat stored in the element due to flow of
heat in the radial direction.
dQr Qr  Q ( r  dr )

 (Qr ) dr
r
  t 
   k ( rd .dz ) .d  dr
r  r 
  t 
k ( dr.d .dz )  r.  d
r  r 
 2t t 
k ( dr.d .dz )  r. 2   d
 r r 
 2t 1 t 
k ( dr.rd .dz )  2  .  d
 r r r 
(b) Tangential direction (r—z plane):
Heat flow in tangential direction.
Heat influx

Heat efflux
• Heat stored in the element due to flow in
the tangential direction,
(c) Axial direction
Heat flow in Axial direction.
Heat influx
t
Qz  k (r.d .dr ) d
z

Heat efflux


Q ( z  dz ) Qz  (Qz )dz
z
Heat stored in the element due to heat flow
in
axial direction
dQz Qz  Q ( z  dz )
  t 
   k (r.d .dr ) d  dz
z  z 
2
t
k (dr.d .dz ) 2 .d
z
Net heat accumulated in the element

 2t 1 t 1 2t 2t 

k .dr.d .dz  2  .  2 . 2  2  d
 r r r r  z 

Heat generated within the element (Q’g ):

Total heat generated within the element is
given by
Q ' g qg (dr.rd .dz ).d
 From energy balance considerations, the
rate of change of energy within the control
volume equals the total heat storage plus
the heat generated. Therefore,
(A) +(B) = (C)
Net heat accumulated in the element +
heat generated within the element =
energy stored in the element
• Dividing both sides by(dr.rd.dz ).d

which is the general heat conduction

equation in the cylindrical co-ordinates.
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE
WALL
• Plane wall :
Consider a plane wall of homogenous
material through which heat is flowing only
in the X-direction
 The general heat conduction equations in
cartesian co-ordinates is given by :

Where,
δ= Thickness of the plane wall
A=cross sectional area of the plane wall
K= thermal conductivity of wall material
t1,t2= temperature at two faces 1 and 2 of the
wall
• For one directional steady state heat flow
with no internal heat generation the
equation reduces to

• By integrating the above equation twice we

get
• Where c1 &c2 are arbitrary constants. The
value of these constant may be calculated
from the known boundary conditions as
follows.
The boundary condition are

Now, applying these boundary conditions to

equation (2)
Putting the values of C1, C2 in equation (2)

This equation gives the variation of

temperature w.r.t. distance ‘x’ along the
directional of heat flow, which is a linear
relationship.
• Now heat transfer through the plane wall
can be found by using Fourier’s equations.
COMPOSITE PLANE WALL
 It represents a composite wall made up of
three different layers of thickness.δ1, δ2 and
δ3 with thermal conductivities k1,k2,k3
respectively.

• This composite wall is exposed to

temperature ‘t1’ on one side and ‘t2’ on other
side such that the temperature at the
interfaces are ‘ta’ and ‘tb respectively.
• Since the heat transfer rate through each
layer is same, we have

Rearranging the above expression, we get;

Adding (i), (ii) and (iii), we have

Total thermal resistance (Rt)=Rt1+Rt2+Rt3

• If the composite wall consists of ‘i’ layers,
then;
 ELECTRICAL ANALOGY OF HEAT
TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION
• Observations indicate that in systems
involving heat and electricity, the flow
quantity is directly proportional to the
driving potential and inversely proportional
to the flow resistance.
From Ohm’s law

I =V/R……………………………(i)
from Fourier’s law of heat transfer
• As potential difference across a resistance
makes the current to flow similarly
temperature difference across a solid
makes the heat to flow. Obviously there is
a one- one correspondence between the
flow of electric current and heat i.e.,
• Electric current is analogous to thermal
heat flow rate
• Electrical voltage corresponds to thermal
temperature difference.
• Comparing equations (1) and (ii) electric
resistance is analogous to quantity dx/kA.
This quantity is called thermal resistance.
• So, Thermal Resistance R = dx/kA.
 CONTACT THERMAL RESISTANCE
• In composite wall calculation of heat flow
are made on the assumption that:
1) The contact between the adjacent layer is
perfect.
2) At the interface temperature is continuous.

• In real system however due to surface

roughness and void spaces contact surface
touch only discrete location
• There is not a single plane of contact
which means the area available for the
flow of heat at the interface will be small
compared to the geometric area.
• Due to these reduced area and presence
of air voids a large resistance to heat flow
at the interface occur.
• These resistance is known as thermal
contact resistance and it causes
temperature drop between two material at
the interface.
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Consider a hollow cylinder made of
material having constant thermal
conductivity and insulated at both the
ends.
Let
r1, r2 = inner and outer radii
T1, T2 = temperature of inner and outer
surfaces.
k= constant thermal conductivity within
the given temperature range.
The general heat conduction equation in
cylindrical co-ordinates is given by:
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Heat transfer through this cylindrical shell is put
by following constraints:
•
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• So, the equation (3) reduces to
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Now, taking integration of above equation

Now apply boundary conditions:

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Applying these boundary conditions to equation (4)
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Putting value of ‘C1’ in equation (A);
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• Putting the values of ‘C1’ and ‘C2’ in equation (4)
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER
• This equation gives the variation of temperature
w.r.t. radius of cylindrical shell.
• Equation represents that the temperature
variation is ‘logarithmic’ for cylindrical shell.
• Now heat transfer ‘Q’
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW
CYLINDER

where Rt, = Thermal resistance =

LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE
HOLLOW CYLINDER
 LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE
HOLLOW CYLINDER
• Heat transfer for hollow cylinder

• Heat transfer for plane wall having thickness d = r2— r1 is

 LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE
HOLLOW CYLINDER
• If both the hollow cylinder and plane wall
transfer same rate of heat transfer with same
material and temperature difference across the
wall, then
 LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE
HOLLOW CYLINDER
• Am is so chosen that the heat flow through
cylinder and plane wall will be equal for the
same temperature difference across the wall .

• where Ai and A0 are inside and outside surface

areas of the cylinder.
• The expression is known as logarithmic mean
area or equivalent area of plane wall or hollow
cylinder.
CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION.
• The addition of insulation in some cases may
reduce thermal resistance due to the reduction in
convective thermal resistance because of increase
in surface area as in case of cylinder and sphere. It
may be shown that the thermal resistance actually
decreases and then increases in some cases with
the addition of insulation.
• The thickness up to which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical
thickness. In case of cylinders and spheres it is
called ‘Critical radius.
 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

• Let us consider a hollow cylinder provided

with in insulation with inner radius ‘r,’ and
outer radius ‘r’ as shown in Fig. 2.15.
 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

• Total thermal resistance offered by the insulation ,

 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF
INSULATION
• When ‘r’ radius of insulation increases it will increase the second
factor and decrease the third factor in the above equation. The R
i.e., thermal resistance will be maximum at a radius where
 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF
INSULATION

• We can see from the graph (Fig. 2.16) between R’ and ‘r’
that when r < rc, thermal resistance decreases with
increase in r upto r i.e., heat transfer rate increases.
• r > rc, thermal resistance increases with increase in ‘r’
i.e., heat transfer decreases
 EXTENDED SURFACES

• Fins are extended surfaces used to

increase heat transfer by increasing
surface area.
 PURPOSE

• The purpose of fins is to improve heat

dissipation from a surface to surroundings.
• Fins are widely used in engineering heat
transfer equipments. Electrical apparatus like
transformers and motors in which the generated
heat should be efficiently transferred, are
provided with fins on the outside surface.
• Similarly fins are provided on the cylinders of air
cooled LC. engines (like that of a motor cycle)
and on a large variety of heat exchanger. –
 Types of fins
 The fins are designed and manufactured in
many shapes and forms. These are mainly of
following types.
• (i) Straight fin : It is an extended surface
attached to a plane wall. It may be of uniform
cross sectional area, or its cross sectional area
may vary along its length to form a triangular,
parabolic or trapezoidal shape.
 TYPES OF FINS
• Annular fin : This is a fin circumferentially
attached to a cylinder and its cross section
varies with radius from centre line of cylinder.
 TYPES OF FINS
• (iii)Pin Fin or spine : These fins are of circular
cross section whose diameter is much smaller
than its length. The pin fins may also be of
uniform or non-uniform cross section.
GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN
 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN

• Consider a straight rectangular fin or protruding

from a wall surface (Fig. )
• The characteristic dimensions of the fin are its
length 1, cross-sectional area A and the
circumferential parameter P. Thus for a
rectangular fin
•
 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN

• The temperature at the base of the fin is and the

temperature of the ambient fluid into which the
rod extends is considered to be constant at
temperature at the base temperature t 0 is
highest and the temperature along the fin length
goes on diminishing.
 ASSUMPTION
• Thickness of the fin is small compared with the
length and width; temperature gradients over the
cross-section are neglected and heat conduction
treated one dimensional.
• Homogeneous and isotropic fin material; the
thermal conductivity k of the fin material is
constant.
• Uniform heat transfer coefficient h over the
entire fin surface.
• No heat generation within the fin itself.
 ASSUMPTION
• Joint between the fin and the heated wall offers
no bond resistance temperature at root or base
of the fin is uniform and equal to temperature t0
of the wall.
• Negligible radiation exchange with the
surroundings; radiation effects, if any, are
considered as included in the convection
coefficient h.
• Steady state heat dissipation.
 ASSUMPTION
• Heat from the heated wall is conducted through
the fin and convicted from the sides of the fin to
the surroundings. Let attention be focused on an
infinitesimal element of the fin; the element has
thickness of and is located at a distance x from
base wall.
• Heat conducted into the element at plane x –
 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN

• Heat conducted out of the element at plane (x + dx)

• Heat convected out of the element between the

planes x and (x + dx)
 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN
• Here temperature t of the fin has been presumed
to be uniform and non-variant
for the infinitesimal element.
• A heat balance on the element gives:

Upon rearrangement and simplification

 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN

• Equation (4) is further simplified by transforming

the dependent variable by defining the
temperature excess θ as,

Since the ambient temperature is constant, we

get by differentiation

where
 GENERAL EQUATION OF FIN
• Equations (4) and (5) provide a general form of
the energy equation for one- dimensional heat
dissipation from an extended surface. For a
given fin, the parameter m is constant provided
the convective film coefficient h is constant over
the entire surface and the thermal conductivity k
is constant within the considered temperature
range.
• Then the general solution of this linear,
homogeneous second order differential equation
is of the form
 HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY
LONG FIN
• The relevant boundary conditions are
• Temperature at the base of fin equals the
temperature of the surface to which the fin is
attached.

• Temperature at the end of an infinitely long fin

equals that of the surroundings
 HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY
LONG FIN
• Substitution of these boundary conditions in
equation (6) gives
 HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY
LONG FIN

• An estimate of the heat flow rate can be made

by writing the Fourier rate equation
corresponding to root section of the fin:

• From the expression for temperature distribution

 Recalling that

HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY

LONG FIN
 HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY
LONG FIN

• An estimate of the heat flow rate can be made

by writing the Fourier rate equation
corresponding to root section of the fin:

• From the expression for temperature distribution

 HEAT DISSIPATION FROM AN INFINITELY
LONG FIN

• Recalling that
Case II: Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at
the Tip:
• The fin is of any finite length with the end
insulated and so no heat is transferred from the
tip.
• Therefore, the relevant boundary conditions are

• Applying these boundary conditions to equation

(6)
Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the Tip

• Further

• Solving expressions (a) and (b), the constants

are determined as follows:
Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the Tip

• Substituting these values of constant C1 and C2

in equation (6), is obtained the following
expression for temperature distribution along the
length of fin
Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the Tip
• Expressing in terms of hyperbolic functions

• The rate of heat flow from the fin is given by:

• From the expression for temperature distribution

Heat Dissipation from a Fin Insulated at the Tip
 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN
• Efficiency of fin (i)
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of
actual heat transferred by the fin to the
maximum heat transferable by fin, if the entire fin
area were at base temperature.

The fin efficiency of infinite long fin:

 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN
• The fin efficiency for insulated fin tip
 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN
• Effectiveness of fin
The fin effectiveness represents the ratio
of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat
transfer rate that would exist without a fin.
 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN

Some observations with use of fins are

When Efi =1 indicates that the addition of fins to
the surface does not affect the heat transfer rate
at all.
When <1 indicates that the fin actually acts as
insulation and decreasing the heat transfer rate
from the surface.
When Efl > I indicate the fins are increasing the
heat transfer rate from the surface.
 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN
Parameter used for the designing of fins
• The efficiency of a fin forms a criterion for
judging the relative matrix of the geometrics or
materials.

• In case of a fin insulated at the tip.

 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN
• Dividing II by I, we have
 EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF FIN

• parameters on which the effectiveness of a fin

depends
• We know that

• The fin effectiveness can be increased by choice of a

material of higher conductivity.
• (b) The fin effectiveness is also enhanced by increasing
the ratio of perimeter to cross-sectional area of the fin
(P/Ar).
• (c) The use of fin can be better justified under conditions
for which the convection heat transfer coefficient is
small.