 Electricity supply systems are normally ac (alternating current).

 The supply voltage varies sinusoidal

 instantaneous applied voltage, v Vm sin 2ft 
OR v Vm sin t 
where
 Vm = peak applied voltage in volts
Vm  f = supply frequency in Hz
 t = time in seconds.

1 1
 i

v
Instantaneous current, i
i R
2ft
v Vm sin R V
i  m sin 2ft 
R
i I m sin 2ft 

Current and Voltage are

v in phase
i

2 2
 The “effective” values of voltage and current over the whole cycle

 rms voltage is V “RMS value of an alternating current is that steady

V m state current (dc) which when flowing through the
2
given resistor for a given amount of time produces the
same amount of heat as produced by the alternative
 rms current is Im current when flowing through the same resistance for
I the same time”
2

Meters normally indicate rms quantities and this value is

equal to the DC value

Other representations of Voltage or Current are

 maximum or peak value
 average value

3 3
 di
v L i – instantaneous current
dt
V ii
v Vm sin 2ft  i  m cos2ft   2f
2fL

 Vm  Vm
i cost  Im 
L L
t 0
v  V m sin 2  ft  L

Vm   Current lags Voltage

i sin  t  
L  2 by 90 degree

V V
rms current I 
L 2fL
 j
Using complex numbers and the j operator I  V
L
Inductive Reactance X L 2fL L
v
V V
I  j 
XL jX L i

4 Phasor diagram and wave form 4

 dv i
i C
dt
v Vm sin 2ft  i 2fCVm cos2ft   2f

v  V sin 2  ft  C
i CVm cost 
m
i
I m CVm
  Current leads Voltage
i CVm sin  t  
 2 by 90 degrees

rms current I CV 2fCV

Using complex numbers and the j operator I  jCV
Capacitance Reactance
1 1
XC   i
2fC C
v
V V V
I  j  
XC jX C  jX C 
5 Phasor diagram and wave form
5
 i

V VR  VL
V L

But VR IR and VL I jX L

v  V m sin 2  ft 
V
 V IR  jX L 
R

V V
And I  Where, X L L 2fL  I
R  jX L R  j L

Complex Impedance Z R  jL

V R  j L  VR   VL 
Cartesian Form I  I  2  j 2
 R   L   R   L 
2 2 2 2
R  j L R  j  L
-j indicates that the current lags the voltage
6 6
  VR   VL 
Complex Impedance: Z R  jL Cartesian Form: I  2 2 2
 j 2 2 2
 R  L   R  L 

In Polar Form phasor diagram constructed with

RMS quantities
V
I ∠-  L  VL

R 2  2 L2

 L  - indicates lagging current.

 L tan  1   L L V
 R 
I
V
I
R 2  2 L2 VR

  1 L 
Power factor, p.f. cos  L  cos tan  Z  R 2   2L2
 R  j  L  jX L
L
Complex impedance: Z R  jL R

Z  R 2  2 L2
7
7
 For the circuit shown below, calculate the rms current I & phase angle L

V 0
.2H
I ∠-  L 
2 2 2
R  L
100
V rm
s
 VR   VL  f=50Hz
I  2  j 2 
 R   L   R   L  1
00
2 2 2 2

 L 
 L tan  1  
 R 

8 8
 V VC  VR But VR  IR and VC  I  jX C 

V i
 V IR  jX C  I
R  jX C i

V V
1 1 C

but XC   I
C 2fC R  j / C 
v  V sin 2  ft 
Z R  j / C 
m

Complex Impedance V R

The current, I in Cartesian form is given by

   
 VR   V / C 
I    j  +j signifies that the current leads the
1 1 voltage.
 R2  2 2   R2  2 2 
9   C    C 
9
    
 VR   V / C 
Complex Impedance: Z R  j / C  I Cartesian form: I    j
1   1 
R  2 2
2
R  2 2
2

  C    C 

In Polar Form
V phasor diagram drawn with RMS
I   C +C identifies current leading quantities
1 V
R
2
R  2 2 voltage
 C  1 
C  tan  1   I
  CR  C
V
V
I 
2 1
R  2 2
 C VC

Power Factor cosC 

i

 1 1   Cv
VR

cos tan   v

  CR   VC
v
10 10
sinusoidal current leading the voltage
 j R
 Z R 
C C
1
 jX C   j
C
2 1
Z R  2 2 Z  R2 
1
C  C2
2

11 11
 For the circuit shown, calculate the rms current I & phase angle L
i
V
I   C
1
R2 
 C2
2

0
.1F
   
 VR   V / C 
I    j  
1 1 10
V r
m s
 R2  2 2   R2  2 2 
  C    C  f=10
0 0Hz
1
00
0

Answer: I = 5.32mA 57.90

12 12
 V VR  VL  VC
We know that: VR  IR VL  I  jX L  VC  I  jX C 

 V IR  jX L  jX C  IR  jX L  X C 

i
VC

But X L L & X C 1 / C V C

V VL
I 
R  j  L  1 / C 
v  V m si n 2  ft 
V L

Complex Impedance
 1   1 
2 VV R
Z  R  j   L   Z  R 2   L  
R

13   C  C  13
 V
From previous I
R  j  L  1 / C 
page
VR VL  1 / C  V
I 2  j I R  jL  1 / C
R  L  1 / C  R 2  L  1 / C  R  L  1 / C 
2 2 2 2

V The phasor diagram (and hence the waveforms)

I   s depend on the relative values of L and 1/C.
R  L  1 / C 
2 2
Three cases must be considered

 L  1 / C   X  XC 
s tan  1   s tan  1  L 
 R  or  R 

V
I 
R 2  L  1 / C 
2

14 14
 V
From previous I 
R 2  L  1 / C 
2
page
(i) L1/C VL VC (ii) L 1/C VL VC (iii) L 1/C VL VC

VL
VL
VR (VL -VC)

I
VL
I
V V=VR V
VC

I
(VC -VL) VR
VC

VC
capacitive resistive inductive

1
Resonant frequency fo 
2 LC

15 15
 V
From previous I 
R 2  L  1 / C 
2
page
From the above equation for the current it is clear that the magnitude of the
current varies with  (and hence frequency, f). This variation is shown in
the graph
V
at o, L 1 / C I  0
R
VL = VC and they may be greater than V

1 0 1
0  & f0  
LC 2 2 LC

 fo is called the series resonant frequency.

 This phenomenon of series resonance is utilised in radio tuners.
16 16
 For circuit shown in figure, calculate the current and phase angle and
power factor when frequency is i

(i) 159.2Hz, (ii) 1592.Hz and (iii) 503.3Hz

0.1F

How about you try this ?

100V

1H

1000

Answer:
(i) 11.04 mA + 83.6o, 0.111 leading
(ii) 11.04mA, -83.60, 0.111 lagging
(iii) 100mA, 00, 1.0 (in phase)
17 17
 IS I C  I LR V VC VR  VL Can U name the Laws?

We know that: VC I C  jX C  I C  j / C  V I C  jCV

VR I LR R IS ILR
IC

VL I LR jX L  I LR jL 
VL

VC
V

Substituting for the different

VR
Voltage components gives:
V V
V I LR R  jL  I LR   2 R  jL 
R  jL R  2 L2
V IC
and IS I C  I LR IS  jCV  2 2 2
R  jL 
R  L
S V

I
Hence, S  2
V
2 2
R  L
R  j  CR 
2
  2
CL2

L  
IS

IC
18 ILR 18
 For the circuit shown calculate the minimum supply current, I s and the
corresponding capacitance C. Frequency is 50 Hz.
How about you try this one
IS
too?
100mH
 240V
C

40

19 19
Answer: ISmin = 3.71A C = 38.6F
We know that: power dissipation | instantaneous = voltage| instantaneous  current | instantaneous

 p v i

Hence, instantaneous voltage, v Vm sin t 

instantaneous current, i  I m sint  

Vm I m
p vi Vm sint I m sint   p cos2t    cos 
2

V I Vm Im
P  m m cos but V & I 
2 2 2

20
Therefore, net power transfer P VI cos 
20
 Im

i cos  V P1 Re
‫כ‬ θ

i
i sin 

P = Apparent power
P1 = Real power
P2 = Reactive power P2

21 21
 Im

V P1 Re

O
I I1 II

i
P22
Pn

P = Apparent power
P1 = Real power
P2 = Reactive power P2
P
P22= New Reactive Power
Pn= New Apparent Power
I= Current to reduce Reactive Power
22 22
  Displacement transducers are often variable capacitors,
 Their capacitance varies with movement.
 The value may be adjusted by varying either
 the distance between the capacitance plates, or
 the effective plate area, or
 the effective dielectric between the plates
deflection

Wedge shaped dielectric

moving plate moving plate
d
fixed plate fixed plate

1. Changing the spacing 2. Adjusting the plate overlap 3. Varying the dielectric between the plates

Where
 0 r A 0 = permittivity of free space
Capacitance C r = relative permittivity of dielectric
d
A = area of overlap between the plates
d = distance between the plates
23 23
To determine the displacement by measuring the
IA IB
capacitance accurately. When the bridge is C1
R1
balanced,
1 1
I A R1 I B  I A R2  I B 
jC1 jCT V
R1
CT C1 V
R2 R2
meter
CT
To achieve the maximum bridge sensitivity:
transducer
 the two capacitors should be equal
 the resistances equal to the capacitive reactance at the measuring
frequency.
For accurate measurements prevent or minimise:-
 stray capacitance between leads and earth
 transducer lead inductance
 transducer dielectric losses
 harmonic distortion (undesired components) in voltage supply

24 24
 Linearity of the transducer may be improved by using a
differentially connected displacement device

The transducer is connected to adjacent arms of an ac bridge.

Movement of the central plate increases the capacitance on one side and reduces
it on the other.
RA RB

VMeter

C = C + C C = C - C

displacement
25 25
 1. AC supply with resistive load, RL in series, RC in
series, RLC in series, and RLC in parallel.
2. Phasor & Cartesian representations.
3. Phase angle and power factor.
4. Dissipated Power.
5. Applications: Capacitance transducer

26 26
 Q1 . A 20V 50Hz supply feeds a 20 Resistor in series with a 100mH inductor.
Calculate the circuit (complex) impedance and current.
Q2 . A 200V supply feeds a series circuit comprising 250 resistor, 100mH inductor and
a 159nF capacitor. Calculate the resonant frequency fo and the corresponding
current. Also calculate the current when the frequency is:- fo/3 3fo

Q3 . A small company connected to 240V, 50Hz single-phase supply draws a current

of 40A at 0.8 power factor lagging. A capacitance is connected across the supply
to improve the power factor of the supply current to:
i) unity ii) 0.95 lagging
Calculate the supply current and capacitance in each case.

Q4 . The central plate of a differentially connected displacement transducer shown in

Fig 2.10c is initially midway between the outer plates. Show that if the central
plate is displaced d that the fractional change in the capacitances ( C/C) is given
approximately by: C d

C d
27 27