Chapter Two

OSI Reference Model

TCP/IP DoD Model
Network Reference Model:
• A computer network connects two or more
devices together to share information and
services. Multiple networks connected
together form an internetwork.
Internetworking present challenges -
interoperating between products from
different manufacturers requires consistent
standards. Network reference models were
developed to address these challenges. A
network reference model serves as a
blueprint, detailing how communication
between network devices should occur.
2
 Network Reference Model - Continues

The two most recognized network reference

models are:
•• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
•• The Department of Defense (DoD) model
Without the framework that network models
provide, all network hardware and software would
have been proprietary. Organizations would have
been locked into a single vendor’s equipment, and
global networks like the Internet would have been
impractical, if not impossible.
Network models are organized into layers, with
each layer representing a specific networking
function. These functions are controlled by
protocols, which are rules that govern end-to-end 3
• Protocols on one layer will interact with
protocols on the layer above and below it,
forming a protocol suite or stack. The TCP/IP
suite is the most prevalent protocol suite, and
is the foundation of the Internet.
• A network model is not a physical entity –
there is no OSI device. Manufacturers do not
always strictly adhere to a reference model’s
blueprint, and thus not every protocol fits
perfectly within a single layer. Some protocols
can function across multiple layers.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 4
 OSI Reference Model

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), and
formalized in 1984. It provided the first
framework governing how information should
be sent across a network.

The OSI model consists of seven layers, each

corresponding to a specific network function:
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
Data Communications and Computer Networks 5
 OSI Reference Model - Continues
 4 Transport
 3 Network
 2 Data-link
 1 Physical
Note that the bottom layer is Layer 1. Various
mnemonics make it easier to remember the order of
the OSI model’s layers:

Data Communications and Computer Networks 6

 OSI Reference Model - Continues
ISO further developed an entire protocol suite based on the
OSI model; however, the OSI protocol suite was never
widely implemented.

The OSI model itself is now somewhat deprecated –

modern protocol suites, such as the TCP/IP suite, are
difficult to fit cleanly within the OSI model’s seven layers.
This is especially true of the upper three layers.

The bottom (or lower) four layers are more clearly defined,
and terminology from those layers is still prevalently used.
Many protocols and devices are described by which lower
layer they operate at.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 7
 OSI Model – Upper Layers
The top three layers of the OSI model are often
referred to as the upper layers:
• Layer-7 - Application layer
• Layer-6 - Presentation layer
• Layer-5 - Session layer
Protocols that operate at these layers manage
application-level functions, and are generally
implemented in software.
The function of the upper layers of the OSI model
can be difficult to visualize. Upper layer protocols
do not always fit perfectly within a layer, and 8
Data Communications and Computer Networks
often function across multiple layers.
OSI Model – Application Layer

The Application layer (Layer-7) provides the

interface between the user application and
the network. A web browser and an email
client are examples of user applications.
The user application itself does not reside at
the Application layer - the protocol does. The
user interacts with the application, which in
turn interacts with the application protocol.
Examples of Application layer protocols
include: • FTP, via an FTP client • HTTP, via a
web browser • POP3 and SMTP, via an email
Data Communications and Computer Networks 9
client • Telnet
 OSI Model – Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer (Layer-6) controls the
formatting and syntax of user data for the
application layer. This ensures that data from the
sending application can be understood by the
receiving application.
Standards have been developed for the formatting of
data types, such as text, images, audio, and video.
Examples of Presentation layer formats include:
Text - ASCII
• Images - JPG
• Audio - MP3
• Movies - MPEG Data Communications and Computer Networks 10
OSI Model – Presentation Layer -
Continues
If two devices do not support the same format or
syntax, the Presentation layer can provide
conversion or translation services to facilitate
communication.

Additionally, the Presentation layer can perform

encryption and compression of data, as required.
However, these functions can also be performed
at lower layers as well. For example, the Network
layer can perform encryption, using IPSec
Data Communications and Computer Networks 11
 OSI Model – The Session Layer
• The Session layer (Layer-5) is responsible for
establishing, maintaining, and ultimately
terminating sessions between devices. If a
session is broken, this layer can attempt to
recover the session.
Sessions communication falls under one of three
categories:
• Full-Duplex – simultaneous two-way
communication
• Half-Duplex – two-way communication, but not
simultaneous
Data Communications and Computer Networks 12
• Simplex – one-way communication
 OSI Model – The Lower Layers
OSI Model - The Lower Layers The bottom four
layers of the OSI model are often referred to as
the lower layers: • Layer-4 – Transport layer
• Layer-3 – Network layer
• Layer-2 – Data-Link layer
• Layer-1 – Physical layer
Protocols that operate at these layers
control the end-to-end transport of data
between devices, and are implemented in both
software and hardware.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 13
OSI Model – Transport Layer

• The Transport layer (Layer-4) does not actually

send data, despite its name. Instead, this
layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of
data, by ensuring that data arrives at its
destination error-free and in order.
• Transport layer communication falls under two
categories: • Connection-oriented – requires
that a connection with specific agreed-upon
parameters be established before data is sent.
• Connectionless – requires no connection
before data is sent.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 14
 Connection Oriented Protocols

• Connection-oriented protocols provide several

important services:
• Segmentation and sequencing – data is segmented
into smaller pieces for transport. Each segment is
assigned a sequence number, so that the receiving
device can reassemble the data on arrival.
• Connection establishment – connections are
established, maintained, and ultimately terminated
between devices.
• Acknowledgments – receipt of data is confirmed
through the use of acknowledgments. Otherwise,
data is retransmitted, guaranteeing delivery. 15
Data Communications and Computer Networks
Connection Oriented Protocols -
Continues
• Flow control (or windowing) – data
transfer rate is negotiated to prevent
congestion
The TCP/IP protocol suite incorporates
two Transport layer protocols:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) –
connection-oriented
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) -
connectionless

Data Communications and Computer Networks 16

 OSI Model – Network Layer
• The Network layer (Layer-3) controls internetwork
communication, and has two key responsibilities:
• Logical addressing – provides a unique address that
identifies both the host, and the network that host
exists on.
• Routing – determines the best path to a particular
destination network, and then routes data
accordingly.
Two of the most common Network layer protocols are:
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Novell’s Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
IPX is almost entirely deprecated. IP version 4 (IPv4)
and IP version 6 (IPv6) are covered in nauseating
Data Communications and Computer Networks
17
 OSI Model – Data Link Layer
• While the Network layer is concerned with
transporting data between networks, the Data-Link
layer (Layer-2) is responsible for transporting data
within a network.
The Data-Link layer consists of two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
• Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer
The LLC sublayer serves as the intermediary between
the physical link and all higher layer protocols. It
ensures that protocols like IP can function regardless
of what type of physical technology is being used.
Additionally, the LLC sublayer can perform flow-control
and error checking, though such functions are often 18
provided by Transport layer protocols, such as TCP.
 OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer -
continues
• The MAC sublayer controls access to the
physical medium, serving as mediator if
multiple devices are competing for the same
physical link. Data link layer technologies have
various methods of accomplishing this -
Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), and Token
Ring utilizes a token.
The Data-link layer packages the higher-layer
data into frames, so that the data can be put
onto the physical wire. This packaging process
is referred to as framing or encapsulation.
19
Data Communications and Computer Networks
 OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer -
continues
• The encapsulation type will vary depending on
the underlying technology. Common Data-link
layer technologies include following:
• Ethernet – the most common LAN data-link
technology
• Token Ring – almost entirely deprecated
• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• 802.11 Wireless
• Frame-Relay
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
Data Communications and Computer Networks 20
OSI Model - The Data-Link Layer -
continues
• The data-link frame contains the source and
destination hardware (or physical) address.
Hardware addresses uniquely identify a host
within a network, and are often hardcoded
onto physical network interfaces. However,
hardware addresses contain no mechanism
for differentiating one network from
another, and can only identify a host within
a network. The most common hardware
address is the Ethernet MAC address.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 21
 OSI Model – The Physical Layer
• The Physical layer (Layer-1) controls the signaling
and transferring of raw bits onto the physical
medium. The Physical layer is closely related to
the Data-link layer, as many technologies (such
as Ethernet) contain both data link and physical
functions.
The Physical layer provides specifications for a
variety of hardware:
• Cabling
• Connectors and transceivers
• Network interface cards (NICs)
• Wireless radios 22
Data Communications and Computer Networks
 Encapsulation and Layered
Communication
As data is passed from the user application down the
virtual layers of the OSI model, each layer adds a
header (and sometimes a trailer) containing protocol
information specific to that layer. These headers are
called Protocol Data Units (PDUs), and the process of
adding these headers is called encapsulation. Note
that in the TCP/IP protocol suite only the lower layers
perform encapsulation, generally.
For example, a Transport layer protocol such as TCP
will add a header containing flow control, port
numbers, and sequencing. The Network layer header
contains logical addressing information, and the Data-
link header contains physical addressing and other23
hardware specific information.
Encapsulation and Layered
Communication
• The PDU of each layer is identified with a
different term:

Data Communications and Computer Networks 24

 Encapsulation and Layered
Communication
• Each layer communicates with the corresponding
layer on the receiving device. For example, on the
sending device, source and destination hardware
addressing is placed in a Data-link header. On the
receiving device, that Data-link header is
processed and stripped away (decapsulated)
before being sent up to the Network and other
upper layers.
• Network devices are commonly identified by the
OSI layer they operate at; or, more specifically,
what header or PDU the device processes.
Data Communications and Computer Networks 25
 Encapsulation and Layered
Communication
• For example, switches are generally
identified as Layer-2 devices, as switches
process information stored in the Data-Link
header of a frame, such as Ethernet MAC
addresses. Similarly, routers are identified as
Layer 3 devices, as routers process logical
addressing information in the Network
header of a packet, such as IP addresses.

26
 Encapsulation Illustrated

• The following illustrates how basic

encapsulation occurs with the TCP/IP stack,
which typically performs encapsulation only at
the lower layers:

27
 Encapsulation - Continues

• During encapsulation on the sending host: • Data

from the user application is handed off to the
Transport layer. • The Transport layer adds a header
containing protocol-specific information, and then
hands the segment to the Network layer. • The
Network layer adds a header containing source and
destination logical addressing, and then hands the
packet to the Data-Link layer. • The Data-Link layer
adds a header containing source and destination
physical addressing and other hardware-specific
information. • The Data-Link frame is then handed
off to the Physical layer to be transmitted on the
network medium
Data Communications as bits.
and Computer Networks 28
 Decapsulation
During decapsulation on the receiving host, the
reverse occurs:
• The frame is received from the physical medium.
• The Data-Link layer processes its header, strips it
off, and then hands it off to the Network layer.
• The Network layer processes its header, strips it off,
and then hands it off to the Transport layer.
• The Transport layer processes its header, strips it
off, and then hands the data to the user application.

Data Communications and Computer Networks 29

 IP and the DoD Model
• The Internet Protocol (IP) was originally
developed by the Department of Defense
(DoD), and was a cornerstone for a group of
protocols that became known as the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
The DoD developed their own networking model,
which became known as the DoD or TCP/IP
Model. It consists of four layers:

Data Communications and Computer Networks 30

 DoD Model
• The consolidated DoD model is generally
regarded as more practical than the OSI model.
Upper layer protocols often provide services
that span the top three layers. A converged
Data-link and Physical layer is also sensible, as
many technologies provide specifications for
both layers, such as Ethernet.
The following chart illustrates where common
protocols fit into the DoD model:

31