University of Visvesvaraya College of Engineering

Mechanical
Measurements and
Metrology
unit -1
Measurement &
Measurement System
PRESENTED BY
DR.HANUMANTHRAJU H G
PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UVCE
 Contents
• Introduction
• Definition
• Basic Requirements
• Methods of Measurements
• Generalized measurement system
• Fundamental & derived units
• Standards of Measurements
• Role of Measurement in Industry
 Contents
• Transducers
• Classification of Transducers
• Transfer efficiency
• Variable –resistance
• Inductance and Capacitive transducers
• LVDT
• Piezoelectric transducer
• Electronic transducer
• Photo Voltaic emissive & conductive transducers
• Relative merits and demerits of Mechanical and Electrical.
 Introduction
• Measurement is defined as the Process or art of obtaining a quantitative
comparison between a predetermined standard and an unknown
magnitude. Measurement means determination of anything that exits in
some amount.
• Metrology is the name of given to the science of pure measurements for
engineering purpose .it is restricted to measurements of length and angle
and quantities which one expressed in linear and angular terms.
• Metrology is the same science of pure measurement. The science of
metrology had been applied to engineering to a limited extent before the
first world war. Metrology is concerned with the establishment and
reproduction, consumption and transfer of units of measurement and
standards.
 Definition
• Measurement is defined as the process or the
act of obtaining a quantitative comparison
between a predefined standard and an
unknown magnitude.
 Basic Requirements
• The standard used for comparison must be
accurately known and commonly accepted.
For example : A length cannot be simply said it
is too long but it must be said it is
comparatively longer than some standard.
• The procedure and the apparatus used for
comparison must be commonly accepted and
must be provable.
 Objectives of metrology

To provide accuracy at minimum cost.

 evaluation of newly developed products.
 To reduce the cost of inspection by effective and
efficient utilization of available facilities
 To reduce the cost of rejections and rework.
 To standardize measuring methods.
 To maintain the accuracy of measurements
through periodical calibration of the instruments.
 Methods of Measurements
1. Direct Comparison 6. Contact Method
2. Indirect comparison 7. Transposition Method
3. Comparative Method 8. Complimentary
4. Coincidence Method Method
5. Fundamental Method 9. Deflection Method
10. Contact less Method
1. Direct Method
Measurements are directly obtained.
Ex: Vernier Calipers and Scales.

2. Indirect Method
Obtained by measuring other Quantities.
Ex: Measurement of strain induce in a bar due to the applied
force.
 .
3 Comparitive Method
its compared with other known value.
Ex: Comparators.

4.Coincidense Method
Measurement coincide with certain lines and
signal.
Ex: Comparators.

5. Fundamental Method
Measuring a quantity directly in related with the
definition of that Quantity.
 .
6 Transposition Method
Quantity to be measured is first balanced by a known value
and then balanced by an other new known value.
Ex: Determination of mass by balancing methods.

7. Complementary Method
The value of quantity to be measured is combined with
known value of the same quantity.
Ex: Determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement volume.
8.Deflection Method
The value to be measured is directly indicated by a deflection
of pointer.
Ex: Pressure Measurement.

9.Contact Method
Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area.
EX: vernier Caliper.

10. Contactless Method

There is no direct contact with surface to be measured.
Ex: Measurements by optical instruments.
Generalized Measurement System
General Arrangement Consists Three
Stages

STAGE I → A Detector Transducing

or Sensor Stage.

STAGE II → Signal Conditioning Stage.

STAGE III → Terminating or Read out Stage

 STAGE I A Detector Transducing or Sensor Stage

• Function is to detect or sense the measurand

ideally, it should be insensitive to every other
possible input.
• Ex: if it is a Pressure Pick up, it should
insensitive to acceleration.
• If it is a Strain Gauge., it should insensitive to
temperature.
• If it is a linear accelerometer., it should
insensitive to accelaration.
 STAGE II Signal Conditioning Stage
• Purpose is to modify the Transduced
information, so that is acceptable to the
Terminating Stage.
• It may performing the basic operation such as
Filtering, integration, Differentiating or
Telemetering as required.
• Increase either amplitude or Power of the
signal or both.
 STAGE III Terminating or read out stage

• Provides the information sought in the form

comprehensible to one of the human sense or
to a controller.
Presented as:
1. A Relative displacement such as movement
of indicating hand, Displacement of
oscilloscope trace etc.
2. In digital form eg. Automobile odometer,
voltmeter, ammeter etc
Stage I Sensor Transducer Stage II Signal
Conditioning
• Examples are Mechanical

• Eg. Contacting Spindle, Spring • Gearing, Cranks, Slides,

Elastic devices, Diaphragms, Connecting Links. Cams.
Bourdon tube for Pressure,
Proving ring for force.

• Examples are Hydraulic-

Pneumatic
• Buoyant-float, orifice, venturi, • Piping, Valves, dash-pots etc.
vane, Propeller.
• Optical
• Photographic film, Photoelectric • Mirrors, lenses, optical filters, light
cell. levers, optical fibers.
 Stage I Sensor Transducer Stage II Signal Conditioning

• Electrical

• Contactor, Resistance, • Amplifying system,

capacitance, matching devices,
Piezoelectric crystal, filters, telemetering
thermocouple etc. systems, Integrated
circuit system etc.,
 Stage III Terminating Read-out
Indicators
Moving pointer and scales, Light beam and scales, Electron beam
and scale (CRO) Liquid Column.
Digital Types
Alphanumeric Readouts.
Recorders
Digital Printing, Direct Photography, Magnetic Recording.
Processors
Various types of Computing Systems, Feed Read out or Recording
devices and or controlling systems.
Controllers
All type.
Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge
Bourdon tube Pressure Gauge
 Generalized Measurement System Applied to Bourdon tube
Pressure Gauge

• Circular tube : Serves as Primary detector- transducer.

Changing Pressure into near linear displacement.

• Linkage gear Arrangement:

Serves as secondary transducer, linear to rotary motion
and as an amplifier. Yielding magnified output.

• Pointer over calibrated scale or moving hand:

Serves as a read out device
Bourdon Pressure Gauge Measuring
System
 Calibration
Read out device Produces two output
for the measured input and similarly
it should display an output equivalent
to the known measured input near
the full scale input value.
 1. Primary Standard
2. Secondary Standard
3. Tertiary Standard
4. Working Standard

a.Refrence std (Ref purposes)

b. Calibration std (calibration of inspection and working
purposes)
c. Inspection std (by inspectors)
d. working std (by operators)
 Line Standard
Standard used to measure between two lines or points
Accuracy is low ;+ or – 0.2mm
Measuring Scale

End Standard
Standard used to measure between two surfaces
Accuracy is high
Slip Gauge, Gap Gauge, and micrometer +or – 0.0005mm
 Fundamental and derived units
Fundamental measurement
Measurement unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Supplementary units
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr
Derived units
Derived units
Derived units
Derived units
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis
 Standards of Measurements

A Standard is an exact quantity that

people agree to use for comparison.

If different measurements are made

using the same standard we can compare
them.
 Le systeme Internationale d’unites

The International System of units was

developed in 1960.

We now call this the SI for short.

SI is a set of standards that are universally

accepted and used by scientists around the world.
 Measurement system

• What is the purpose of a Standard?

 Measurement system
•The SI System is based on multiples of 10.
•Prefixes are used to show which multiple of 10 is
being used.
What will be measuring?
Length
 Volume
Volume is the amount of space
occupied by an object.
1ml=1cm3
Liters,mililitres
 Matter

Matter is anything that takes up space

Mass is a Measurement of the quantity of matter in
an object
Grams, Kiolgrams
 Density
Density is the mass per unit of
volume of an object
How much matter is in a given space
gm/cm3
 Time
The SI unit for time is second (s)
60s =1 min
3600 s = 60 min =1hr
 Temperature
The SI unit for temperature is the Kelvin (K)
Zero on the Kelvin Scale (0k) is the coldest
possible temperature – absolute Zero
0 K=-2730 c
2730 C below the freezing point of water!!!
COLD!
 Temperature
The Kelvin Scale Is based on absolute
Zero = -2730 c
Standards of Measurement
Standard means a physical object
which serves to preserve the value of
some unit is should be either
permanent or definitely re-
producible.
Basic unit with which a measured
quantity is compared.
 a. Primary Standard
• It is one that can be made by direct
observation without involving any conversion
of the measured quantity into length by using
basic Standard which donot change their
value.
• Eg:- length, Mass and time.
 b. Secondary Standard
Involves only one Translational (Conversion) to be done on the
quantity under measurement to convert it into a change of length, is
these are the reproduced Standard finally based on Primary Standard
and also Periodically compared with Primary Standard for any error.

Eg:- Measured quantity may pre gas/fluid of g by using pressure

gauge , may not be observable

An instrument which translates pre changes into length change on a

length scale or a Standard.

Pre Gauge ,the Primary signal (Pre) is transmitted to a translator and

secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer’s eye.
 c. Tertiary Standard
• It involves two translation, these are based on secondary Standard
and are regularly used in the lab and workshop for the reference and
these are compared with secondary Standard periodically for any
induced error.
• Eg:- Measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple.

Here Primary signal is temperature of an object is transmitted to a

translator which generates a voltage which is the function of
temperature called secondary signal.

Then the voltage in turn is applied to a Voltmeter through a pair of

wires, then voltage translates into length (tertiary) ,then
tertiary( length change )is transmitted to the observer’s brain.
 d. Derived Standard

Most of the units are used to define the properties of

material and operation of the process are
combination of length mass and time.

Eg:- Kelvin Scale of temperature, internal or scale of

temperature has been established. This scale is
defined by a combination of accepted numerical value
for freezing, boiling and melting point of certain
substance.
 e. Standard Samples
A Variety of Standard Samples have been developed to provide
checks on operation of and on measuring instrument .

Eg:- 1. Samples of iron and steels of specified comparation to

check correctness of chemical analysis of those material
(metallurgical standard).

2. Standard Samples for roughness comparison of surfaces.

Fundamental and derived units, standard of measurement legal
status of standard in india.
 Transducers
• Ist Stage of measuring system is sensors or
detectors or transducers. The desired signal and
provides analogous output.
• Classification of Transducer:-
Classified on the basis of operations Performed.
classified into three categories
 Class 1
 Class 2
 Class 3
 Class 1
• First stage element used as detector only.
Eg:- Dial indicator -> displacement to reading,
Mechanical spindle, contacting members(fin and
fingures).
Class 2:-
First stage element used as detector and one
stage transducer.
Eg:- Bourdon tube -> Pressure to displacement---
detection called Primary transducer.
 Class3
• First stage element used a detector and two
stages transducers.
Eg:- Compressive type of load cell called
secondary transducer.
i Force into strain (mechanical displacement)
ii Strain into changes in resist by strain gauge
I stage - detector or primary transducer
ii stage – secondary transducer
 Transfer Efficiency

It is the efficiency of transducer defined

by SIMSON.
Let Iout = Information delivered by the pickup
Iin = information received by the pickup

Medium handled during this process is called

information.
Pickup Transducer
 Mechanical Transducer

Force into displacement mechanical quantity,

parameters are force, Pressure, displacement,
flow rate temperature….
The initial concept of converting an applied force
into a displacement is basic function of
mechanical transducer.
Eg:-
1. Contact spindle pin-> displacement to displacement
2. Springs (elastic members) -> force to linear displacement
(vibration)
3. Load cell-> force to linear displacement (strain
measurement)
4. Proving ring-> force to linear displacement( force
 5. Bourdon tube , bellows, diaphragms-> Pressure to displacement

6.Pendulum Scale (mass) -> force to displacement

7.Seismic mass -> force to displacement (vibration)

8.Liquid column(thermal) -> Pressure to displacement

9. Thermo couple-> temperature to electric current

10. Bimaterial -> temperature to displacement

11.Thermistor (Hydro Pneumatic) -> Temperature to resistance chain

12.Float (static) -> Fluid level to displacement

13. Hydrometer (s) -> Specific gravity to displacement

14.orifice, venturi, Pitot tube (dynamic)-> Fluid velocity to pressure chamber

15.Vanes -> velocity to force

16. Tubines -> Linear to angular velocity.

 Mechanical Springs

Commonly used Springs are Cantilever

spring, helical, Spiral Torsion bars,
Proving rings.
 Spiral springs
• Used to produce controlling
torque in analogue type element
instant.
• By increasing number of turns
deformation per unit length can
be reduced.
• Controlling torque directly
proportional to angle of
deflection.
• Stress well below their elastic
limit to avoid permanent
deformation.
• Force  Linear displacement
 Torsions bars
• Primary sensing element for
torque used in torque
meters.
• Twist or deflection of the bar
Proportional to applied
torque.
• Deformation is used as a
measure of torque.
• In torque meters angular
displacement due to twisting
of the bar is measured with
a displacement transducer.
 Proving rings

It is used to measure force, weight or

load deflection can be measured with
help of micrometers dial gauges or
element transducers.
 Electrical Transducers
In majority of measurement system electrical
element serves as a secondary transducer.
Mechanical member as Primary detector
transducer.

Mechanical member-> Force into displacement.

Electrical element -> displacement into current.

Therefore basic electrical change may be

resistive ,inductive, capacitive etc…..
Advantages over Electrical transducer
element over Mechanical transducer
•Susceptible to miniaturization.

•Functional effects are minimized.

•Mass interval effects are very much reduced.

•Remote recording or control is possible

•Amplication or attenuation of signals may easily obtained.

•An output with sufficient power for control may be obtained.

 Advantages of electrical over
mechanical measured system
Purpose of using electrical aids in measured is to replace the direct
pens and its movement caused by mechanical movement by a
transducer or mechano electrical transfers which converts motion or
displacement into electrical impurities then voltage thus amplified by
an electronic amplifier and then applied to an recording instrument.

1. Facilitate for measurement from a distance by means of cables.

2. Amplifications is continously variable and very much greater than
anything produced by mechanical contrivance.
3. It is possible to keep small the vibrating.
4. Pick up masses and so keep to a minimum any interaction with the
object to be tested.
5. The attainable frequency range can be extended higher.
Disadvantages of electrical Transducer

1. The Equipment used is complex and

required trained operators.
2. Source of Voltage is necessary.
Eg:- For machno electric system.

Electro magnetic and electrodynamic, Piezo

electric, variable resistance, variable
capacitance, variable self inductance,
variable coupling (Diff transform).
Variable Resistance or Resistance
transducer
The resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to the
relation.
L
R 
A
Where R= Resistance in ohm (Ω)
 = Resistivity of met in Ω cm.
L= Length of the conductor in cm.
A=Area of the cross section of the conductor.
Here resistance is used which varies in magnetic with in
mechanical deflections such met may
 1.Piece of carbon--- Resistance of which decreases when
compressive load is applied in it.

2. A metal wire- whose resistance increases the wire is

placed under a tensile load.

3. A sliding resistor of which the resist value is varied by

means of a sliding contact

and those serves for the
measures of large displacement.

 Variation in resistance is converted into a voltage variation

in an electric.
1. Resistance Circuit (By constant method or
Bridge method)
Eg: Linear motion potentiometer/sliding
contact device whose linear movement is to
be detected.
This device is a variable resistor whose resistance is varied by the
movement of slider over its resist element.
The resistance can be further measured by employing a wheat
stone bridge circuit.

In angular motion potentiometer, only resistance element is

circular instead of straight. The slider is mounted upon a shaft, as
this shaft is rotated the slider moves over the resistance element,
cutting off a part of a total resistance.

The rotating component whose angular motion is to be reused is

completed to this shaft. Thus the resistance of potentiometer
changes in proportion to the angular motion of the rotating
component.
Eg: Resistance strain gauge, Resistance thermometer,and
Thermistor.
2.Variable Capacitance/Capacitance Transducer

Pick ups of variable capacitance type can

two capacitor plates, one of which is fixed
the other is free to move. In some cases
object to be tested acts as a movable
plate. It is well known that capacitance is
inversible proportional to the spacing
between two plates.
Eg: Linear motion, Variable capacitor.
 In this linear motion sensing device, the
motion is converted into corresponding
changes capacitor.
The device consists of two plates, one fixed
other movable.
The two plates form a capacitor using the between them as a die
electric. The movable plate connected by an arm to the moving
component whose linear movement is to be detected.

The movable plates moves close to the fixed plate. when the
motion of the component is towards the right and capacitor is
increased. When the movable plate is further is away from the
fixed one, the capacitor Is decreased in case of variable capacitor
angular motion sensor, A metal plates that slides between two
fixed plates the movable plate is rotated about it is axis by a
shaft which is coupled to the rotating. Component whose rotary
motion is to be sensed. The three plates and the air between
them form a capacitor varies in prop to the degree and which
the plates are meshed. The capacitor is maximum when the
plates are completely meshed and is at its minimum when the
plates are unmeshed.
3.Variable Inductance /Inductance
transducer
Inductance: A coil subject to varying current
exhibits resist to flow greater than DC resist
of the current carrying conductor itself and
an induced counter electro motive force is
produce by the magnetic flux cutting the
turns of the coil. This effect is called
inductance or self inductance.
Linear motion variable inductor

In this device the arm (whose movement) is as that of the

component, the linear movement which is to be detected is
connected to a soft iron core which moves into a coil. The distance
changes of the coil are proportional to the position of the soft
iron core in it and hence linear motion of the component. The
inductance increased as the soft iron core is moves forward into
the coil and reduced as the core moves out the coil.
4.Linear variable differential
Transformer (LVDT)
This device converts linear motion to a voltage signal. It consists of one
primary winding and two identical secondary windings and soft iron core
which is connected by means an arm to the moving component and moves
with it.

The core is positioned that normally, the voltage output from each secondary
winding is the same such a case the core is said to be neutral/ null position
and magnetic lines of force linking the primary winding to secondary windings
are the same for the both sw1 and sw2 and hence the voltage from both the
secondary windings is the same.

If the core moves to the right, there would be more linkage between primary
and sw2 and less between primary and sw1, hence the voltage output from
sw2 would increases and that from sw1 would decrease. If the core moves to
the left ,the reverse action takes place, i.e the amount of voltage change in
either secondary windings are proportional to the amount of movement of
core. The direction of the motion can be determined by noting which voltage
output is increasing or decreasing.
 The output of two windings can be
into voltage signal also when the core
is null position. The net output is zero
as voltages of sw1 and sw2 are equal
and opposite.
 Electronic Transducer

Figure shows schematic diagram of an electronic transducer

element. It is basically an electronic in which some of the
elements are movable, the plate mounted on an arm which
extends through a flexible diaphragm at the end of the tube.
A mechanical movement is applied to the external end of the
rod is transferred to the plates with in the tube there by
changing the characteristics of the tube.
Application: used as surface roughness indicates
accelerometer, Pressure, force measurement.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
There are certain substances which generates voltage when
they are subjected to mechanical forces/stresses along
specific planes. In this way mechanical force can be sensed
and converted into electrical signal which operates an
indicating device such type of transducers are called
Piezoelectric transducer. Also that effect called Piezo electric
effect.

That substances are generally Crystals types is natural and

synthetic.

Eg: Natural Crystals are quartz, tourmaline synthetic crystals

are Rochelle salts, barium titrate, ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate (A.D.P).
 Advantages:

Advantages of using there excellent high response, high

output small size detects of microseconds and output is linear.
Insensitive to temperature and humidity to measure sound
noise and motion
Applications:
Used in aero dynamical shock tube work, seismo-
graph equipment (vibration and accelaration
measures of sockets etc) to measure strain, force
torque.
Photo-voltaic cells /Transducers

Thin transparent metal layer which is

coating of certain oxide on metal surface,
light strikes the coating an generates an
electric potential is proportional to
intensity of light.
It consists of a metallic base plate, a semiconductor material and
a thin transparent metal layer. when light strikes the transparent
and semi conductor material, an voltage is generated. This
voltage is depends on load resistance R. The open circuit voltage
is a logarithmic function, but linear behavior may be obtained
by decreasing the conductor resistance. It is used in light
exposure meter for photographic work.
Photoconductive transducer

A voltage is impressed on the cadmium sulphide semiconductor

material. When light strong the semiconductor material, resistance
decrease there by producing an increase in the current indicated by the
meter. Photoconductive transducer are used to measure radiation of
all wave, but extreme experimental difficulties are entered when
operating with long wavelength radiation.
The resistance of the metal changes proportional to light striking on it.
Intensity of light→ Resistance decreases
→ Current increases
Eg: Measure of radiation of light.
 Photo emissive cells

In this light energy causes the emission of electrons from a metal

source, there by providing an electric current.
Basically there are two types of photo emissive cells
1. The vaccume type
2. The gas filled type
Vaccume photo electric cell consists of a curved sheet of thin
metal with it is concave surface coated with photo emissive
material mounted at the centre of curvature of the cathode
whole assembly is mounted in an evaluated glass envelop.
Emissive material which is coated on a cathode emits electron,
when light radiation strikes them, the emitted electrons from
cathode are collected by an anode forming an electric current.
The current through the tube depends on intensity of light, color
of light and voltage applied between cathode and anode.

Intensity of light→ emission of element→ forming an electric

current.
Active and Passive Transducers
Transducer may also be classified according to whether they
are active or passive.

1. Active transducer (Self generating type)

Active transducer are those donot require an
auxiliary power source to produce their also
called self generating type of transducer, they
develop their own voltage or current output.
Eg: Piezoelectric crystals, photo voltaic, photo
conductive cells and Photo emission cells.
Passive Transducers (Externally Power
transducer)
Passive transducer derives the power required for
transduct from an auxilliary power source. The
also derive part of the power required for
conversion from Physical quantity under
measurement. There fore they are also called
externally power transducers.
Eg: Resistive transducer, capacitive transducer,
self inductance transducer, and LVDT.
Thank you