BANGALORE UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY VISVESVARAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

K R CIRCLE , BANGALORE-560001

UNIT-2
INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING DEVICES and TERMINATING
DEVICES

PRESENTED BY
DR.HANUMANTHRAJU H G
PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UVCE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGL

UVCE
 CONTENT
Intermediate Modifying Devices
Mechanical Devices
Simple Current Sensitive Circuit
Ballast Circuit
Voltage Dividing And Balancing Circuit
Resistance And Impedance Bridges
Intermediate
Modifying
Devices
 Signal conditioning
Devices
Output of the first stage which is detected is
transduced into an ‘electrical form’.(in most of
the cases) has to be modified before it becomes
usable and satisfactory to drive third
stage(indicator/recorder).
So, the modifications are carried out in the
intermediate stage commonly called as the signal
conditioning stage.
Mechanical Devices
 Signal conditioning equipment used may be of mechanical,
electrical or electronic.
 Signal conditioning in Mechanical types(using
elements such as linkages, gearing, cams, etc.) have
many limitations such as friction, inertia, non linearity,
backlash, elastic deformation, etc.
 Hence electrical & electronic systems are used which are
free from these drawbacks.Also they give large voltage &
power amplifications required to drive the recording
devices
Inherent Problems in Mechanical
System

Inherent problems arise when the signals from the primary—

secondary transducers are fed into mechanical
intermediate elements and these mechanical
intermediate elements, like linkages, gears, cams, etc., are
inadequate, in handling dynamic inputs

The fallowing are some of the problems of inherent in

any intermediate modifying systems
Kinematic Linearity
 When a linkage system is to be used as a mechanical
amplifier, it should be designed in such a way that it
provides the same amplification, which is often termed
the gain, over its entire range of output.
 The gain should be linear, which would otherwise result in
a poor amplitude response.
 Further, for recording the output, a straight line stylus
movement should be provided; otherwise, the
recorded trace will be distorted along the time axis.
This would result in a poor phase response.
 Hence, it is essential to have a proper kinematic layout
to as certain linearity and straight line stylus movement.
Mechanical
Amplification
Mechanical amplification is defined, in terms of mechanical
advantages, as follows:
Gain = Mechanical advantage
Gain = Output displacement / Input
displacement
Gain = Output velocity / Input velocity
When mechanical amplification is used, frictional loading,
inertial loading, elastic deformation, and
backlash all contribute to errors. Errors resulting from inertial
loading and elastic deformation can be grouped as systematic
errors and those from frictional loading and backlash as
random errors. Although we perceive this value to be more
than unity, it need not be so.
 Reflected Frictional
Amplification
We know that any source of friction in the linkages, however
small, will result in a force, which in turn gets magnified by an
amount equal to the gain. This amplified force is reflected back to
the input as a magnified load, which is numerically equal to the
gain between the source of friction and the input. This effect is
referred to as the reflected frictional amplification. If several such
sources of friction are present in a system, all the sources would
get amplified and reflected in the input.
 The total reflected frictional force is given by the following
equation:
Ftfr = ∑Affr
Ftfr is the total reflected frictional force (in N) at the input of
the system,
A is the mechanical amplification or gain,
Ffr is the actual frictional force (in N) at its source.
Reflected Inertial
Amplification
Problems caused by inertial forces are similar to those caused by
frictional forces. The effects of inertial forces are also amplified and
reflected back to the input in proportion to the gain between their source
and input. It is to be mentioned here that there will not be any loss of
energy, because it is temporarily stored to be retrieved later. This effect is
termed the reflected inertial amplification.
The total reflected inertial force, which should be overcome at the
input of the system, is as follows:
Ftir = ∑A ∆Fir
Ftir is the total reflected inertial force (in N) at the input of
the
system,
A is the mechanical amplification or gain,
∆Fir is the increment of the inertial force (in N) at any point in
the system
Amplification of Backlash and Elastic
Deformation
 Backlash results from temporary non-constraint in a linkage caused by clearances required in
mechanical fits, where relative motion occurs.
 Elastic deformation is brought about by loads and forces, carried by links
 At the output, both backlash and elastic deformation result in lost motion, which will be
amplified by an
amount equal to the gain between the source and the output. Hence, the lost motion is equal to
the actual backlash or deformation multiplied by the gain between the source and the output.
These two effects are termed backlash amplification and elastic amplification, respectively.
 The total projected displacement loss because of backlash is given by the following equation:
Ytbl = ∑AYbl Ytbl is the total projected displacement loss (in mm) due to backlash
clearances provided in mm,
A is the mechanical amplification or gain,
Ybl is the lost motion (in mm) due to backlash or any mechanical
clearance.

 The total projected displacement loss caused by elastic deformation is given by the fallowing
equation:
Ytel = ∑AYel Ytel is the total projected displacement loss (in mm) due to
backlash or clearances provided,
A is the mechanical amplification or gain,
Yel is the lost motion (in mm) due to backlash or any mechanical
Tolerance Problems
 One of the inherent problems of any mechanical system
involving relative motion is the dimensional tolerance
that needs to be provided in order to accommodate
manufacturing errors.
 Further, these tolerances are inevitable because of
the necessity of obtaining the required mechanical
fits, providing space for lubrication, and allowing
thermal expansion of components.
 These tolerances also cause lost motion. In order to
minimize the effect of lost motion due to dimensional
tolerance, the tolerance range has to be kept at a minimum
level. However, it is to be emphasized here that lost motion
due to tolerances cannot be totally eliminated.
Temperature Problems
 Changes in dimensions and physical properties, both elastic and
electrical, are dependent on temperature variations, which
result in deviations known zero shift and scale error.
 Zero shift is primarily a function of linear dimensional change
cause by expansion/contraction of the parts in a mechanical
system due to change in temperature.
Example:-
Spring scale:
•The indicator on the spring scale should be set to zero whenever
there are no weights in the pan.
•If the temperature changes after the scale has been set to zero,
there may be differential dimensional change both the spring
and the spring scale altering the reading.
• This change is referred to as Zero-shift.
Simple current sensitive
circuit
Current Sensor

• A current sensor is a device that detects and converts

current to an easily measured output voltage, which is
proportional to the current through the measured
path.
• Current sensing devices are often desired in the
power supply lines of various circuits, such as battery-
powered computers, battery chargers or critical circuits
requiring thermal forecasting.
• There are a wide variety of sensors, and each sensor is
suitable for a specific current range and environmental
condition. No one sensor is optimum for all applications.
Among these sensors, a current sensing resistor is the most
commonly used.
• It can be considered a currentto-voltage converter, where
inserting a resistor into the current path, the current is
converted to voltage in a linear way of .
• V = I R.

a) Advantages:

• Low cost
• High measurement accuracy
• Measurable current range from very low to medium
• Capability to measure DC or AC current
b) Disadvantages:
• Introduces additional resistance into the measured
circuit path, which may increase source output
resistance and result in undesirable loading effect
• Power loss since power dissipation P=I2 × R.
Therefore, current sensing resistors are rarely used
beyond the low and medium current sensing applications.

*Current sensing devices are often desired in the power

supply lines of various circuits, such as battery-
powered computers, battery chargers or critical circuits
requiring thermal forecasting
Ballast Circuit
Fig. 13.3 :-

• It’s a voltage sensing circuit instead of the current

sensing type. The scheme is shown in Fig. 13.3. is the
supply voltage, is the supply or voltage source
resistance, is the voltage indicated or recorded for
a variation in R again given as kR, is the resistance
introduced in the position as showm and . The
resistance is known as the ballast resistance.
• For the voltmeter having a very high resistance,
current through + is
• The voltage across kR is also the output voltage
:

• With change in measured k changes so that change in

with k is given by

• There is, however, an optimum choice of for

which sensitivity can be made maximum. By
differentiating
w.r.t Rb, this is obtained as
Rb=kR
Obviously, this also varies with sensor output
resistance.
Loading Error
Voltage dividing
and balancing
circuit
Voltage Divider Circuit
• Developing more than one voltage level from a
single
voltage supply

ECE 201 Circuit Theory

I
Identify the current and Apply KVL

vS  iR1  iR2  i(R1

 R2 ) vS
i
 R1  R2
R1
v1  iR1 
R1  R2
vS
R2
v2  iR2 
R1  R2
vS
ECE 201 Circuit Theory
I
Connect a “Load” Resistor in Parallel
Determine vo
vO Req vS
 R1  Req

Req R2 RL
 R2  L
R R
vO 2
vS
 
R2  
R1 1     R2
  RL 
 R2
vO vS RL  ,
 
R2  
R1 1     R2 R
  RL  vO R2  R
1 2
The voltage-Dividing Potentiometer
• Two different situations may occur with this arrangement,
depending on the relative impedance of the resistance element
and the indicator-recorder. If the terminating instrument is of
sufficiently high relative impedance, no appreciable current will
flow through it
• The circuit then becomes a true voltage divider, and the
indicated output voltage may be determined from eq.(8),

or
 Resistance
and Impedance
bridges
 Introduction to Bridge.

🗷 Bridge circuits are the instrument s for making comparisons

measurements, are widely used to measure resistance,
inductance, capacitance and impedance.
🗷 Bridge circuits operate on a null-indication principle, the indication
is independent of the calibration of the indicating device or any
characteristics of it. It is very accurate.
 The Wheatstone Bridge.

🗷 The Wheatstone bridge consists of two parallel resistance

branches with each branch containing two series resistor elements.
🗷 A DC voltage source is connected across the resistance network
to provide a source of current through the resistance network.
🗷 A null detector is the galvanometer which is connected between
the
parallel branches to detect the balance condition.
🗷 The Wheatstone bridge is an accurate and reliable instrument
and heavily used in the industries.
 The Wheatstone Bridge.

🗷 Operation
(i)We want to know the value of R4, vary one of the remaining
resistor until the current through the null detector decreases to
zero.
(ii)the bridge is in balance condition, the voltage across resistor
R3 is equal to the voltage drop across R4.
🗷 At balance the voltage drop at R1 and R2 must be equal to.
 Cont’d…

🗷 No current go through the galvanometer G, the bridge is in

balance
so,

🗷 This equation, R1R4 = R2R3 , states the

condition for a balance Wheatstone
bridge and can be used to compute
the value of unknown resistor.
Example 5.1: Wheatstone Bridge.
Determine the value of unknown resistor, Rx in the circuit.
assuming a null exist ; current through the galvanometer is
zero.

Solution:
From the circuit, the product of the resistance in opposite arms of
the bridge is balance, so solving for Rx
 Sensitivity of the Wheatstone Bridge.
🗷 When the bridge is in unbalance condition, current flows
through the galvanometer causing a deflection of its pointer.
🗷 The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.
🗷 Sensitivity is the deflection per unit current.
🗷 The more sensitive the galvanometer will deflect more with the
same amount of current.

Total deflection,
 Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge.
• The current flows through the galvanometer can
determine by using Thevenin theorem.
 Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge.

The deflection current in the galvanometer

is

Rg = the internal resistance in the galvanometer

 Kelvin Bridge.
🗷 The Kelvin Bridge is the modified version of the Wheatstone Bridge.

🗷 The modification is done to eliminate the effect of contact and lead

resistance when measuring unknown low resistance.

🗷 By using Kelvin bridge, resistor within the range of 1 Ω to

approximately 1μΩ can be measured with high degree of accuracy.

🗷 Figure below is the basic Kelvin bridge. The resistor Ric represent
the

lead and contact resistance present in the Wheatstone bridge.

 Cont’d…

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Used in

AC Voltmeter Circuit.

🗷 The second set of Ra and Rb compensates for

this relatively low lead contact resistance
🗷 At balance the ratio of Ra and Rb must be
equal
to the ratio of R1 to R3.
Example : Kelvin Bridge.
Figure below is the Kelvin Bridge, the ratio of Ra to Rb is 1000. R1 is 5
Ohm and R1 =0.5 R2.
Solution:
Find the value of Rx. Calculate the resistance of R , x

R1 =0.5 R2, so calculate R2

Calculate the value of Rx

 Introduction to AC Bridge.
🗷 AC bridge are used to measure impedances.
🗷 All the AC bridges are based on the Wheatstone bridge.
🗷 In the AC bridge the bridge circuit consists of four impedances
and an ac voltage source.
🗷 The impedances can either be pure resistance or
complex impedance.
 Cont’d…

🗷 When the specific circuit conditions apply, the detector current becomes
zero, which is known as null or balance zero.
🗷 bridge circuits can be constructed to measure about any device
value desired, be it capacitance, inductance, resistance
🗷 the unknown component's value can be determined directly from
the setting of the calibrated standard value
A simple bridge circuits are shown
below;

inductance capacitance
Similar angle Bridge.
🗷 used to measure the impedance of a capacitance circuit.
🗷 Sometimes called the capacitance comparison bridge or
series resistance capacitance bridge
 Opposite angle Bridge.
🗷 From similar angle bridge, capacitor is replaced by
inductance
🗷 used to measure the impedance of a inductive
circuit.
🗷 Sometimes called a Hay bridge
 Wien Bridge.
🗷 uses a parallel capacitor-resistor standard impedance to
balance out an unknown series capacitor-resistor
combination.
🗷 All capacitors have some amount of internal resistance.
Maxwell-Wien Bridge.
🗷 used to measure unknown inductances in terms of calibrated
resistance and capacitance.
🗷 Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly
opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can balance out an
inductive impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a
bridge
🗷 Sometimes called a Maxwell bridge
CONTENT

Terminating devices ( indicating or recording)

Different types of metre indicators
CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope)
Vacuum type voltmeter ( VTVM )
Oscillographs
X–y plotter
Load cells
Torque measuring / power measuring torque / twisting
moment / torsion
Mechanical dynamometers
Gauge dynamometers
TERMINATING DEVICES ( INDICATING OR RECORDI

The primary function of terminating device is to accept the

analogous driving signal & to provide output for immediate
reading or for recording.
Indicating means the value of measured parameter is
indicated by positioning of indicating pointer against
calibrated scale.
Instrument continuously records with a pen and ink the
value of the measured quantity against some other variables
are against time.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF METRE INDICATO
Metre indicators shows the reading output etc.,

•Single point indicators

These shows the reading of only one parameter in the fixed scale movable pointer
indicates the reading.
In some cases fixed pointer with the movable scale indicators are used with respect to
measuring instrument .

•Multi-point, Multi-pointer and Multi range indicator

Multi point indicator is an ordinary indicating instrument with one indicating pointer
but having a facility of connecting a number of input,one at the time with help of the
lever type of selector switch or push button switch selector (automatic or manually) .
 Multi point indicating instrument contains more than one number of the pointer and
above (each point the identification number of the medium being measured in the
marked) ie.., only in recorder .
 example :In the recorders different pens record the record in different coloured
inks and thus it is possible to easily identify various measuring.
The utility of measuring instruments is increased if it has the provision of
calibration for several ranges ie.., different skills of provided in which casr either
only the selected scale is made visible by using the mark which covers all the
scales except the one selected.

•Analog and digital type indicator

In analog type of the metre employ scale and needle( pointer) type
arrangement to display the value of measured parameter. The measured parameter
is converted into electrical signal which further activates some electro-mechanical
devices to move the pointer continuously as the parameter changes .
example:D'Arsonval metre used to measure the current or voltage in the current
metre or voltmeter digital type metre indicate the reading in exact numericals ie..,
in such instrument the indications is in the form of specific numerical read out.
CRO (CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE)
The CRO stands for a cathode ray oscilloscope.
It is typically divided into four sections which are display, vertical
controllers, horizontal controllers, and Triggers.
Most of the oscilloscopes are used the probes and they are used for
the input of any instrument.
 We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along with the
x-axis and y-axis.
The applications of CRO are mainly involved in the radio, TV
receivers, also in laboratory work involving research and design.
 In modern electronics, the CRO plays an important role in the
electronic circuits.
 WHAT IS A CRO?
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used
to obtain waveforms when the different input signals are given.
In the early days, it is called as an Oscillograph.
The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over
time, thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously
graphed beside a scale.
By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties like
amplitude, frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval, and etc.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CRO
CONSTRUCTION OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCO
The construction of CRO includes the following.
Cathode Ray Tube
Electronic Gun Assembly
Deflecting Plate
Fluorescent Screen For CRT
Glass Envelop
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CATHODE RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO working principle depends on the electron ray movement

because of the electrostatic force.
Once an electron ray hits a phosphor face, then it makes a bright spot
on it.
A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope applies the electrostatic energy on the
electron ray from two vertical ways.
The spot on the phosphor monitor turns due to the effect of these two
electrostatic forces which are mutually perpendicular.
It moves to make the necessary waveform of the input signal.
 APPLICATIONS OF CRO
The CRO’s are used in huge applications like radio stations for observing the
transmitting & receiving the properties of the signal.
The CRO is used to measure the voltage, current, frequency, inductance, admittance,
resistance, and power factor.
This device is also used to check the AM and FM circuits characteristics
This device is used to monitor the signal properties as well as characteristics and also
controls the analog signals.
The CRO is used through the resonance circuit to view the shape of the signal,
bandwidth, etc.
The shape of voltage and current waveform can be observed by CRO which helps to
take the necessary decision in a radio station or communication station.
It is used in laboratories for the purpose of research.
Once researchers design a new circuit, then they use CRO to verify the waveforms of
voltage and current of every element of the circuit.
Used for comparing phase & frequency It is used in TV, Radar, and analysis of engine
pressure To check the reactions of nervous and heartbeat. In the hysteresis loop, it is
used to find BH curves Transistor curves can be traced.
ADVANTAGES OF CRO
Cost and Timeline
Training requirements
Consistency & quality
Time efficiency
Expertise & experience
Capacity for problem-solving
Hassle-free
Assurance for regulatory compliance
Voltage measurement
Current measurement
Examination of waveform
 Measurement of phase and frequency
DISADVANTAGES OF CRO
These oscilloscopes are expensive as compared with other measuring
devices like multimeters.
They are complicated to repair once it gets damaged.
These devices need complete isolation .
These are huge, heavy and uses more power .
A lot of control terminals .

USES OF CRO
In the laboratory, the CRO can be used as,
It can display different types of waveforms
It can measure the short time interval .
In voltmeter, it can measure the potential difference.
VACUUM TYPE VOLTMETER ( VTVM )
It is useful device for measurement of voltage.
It can be used for both AC and DC measured.
Vtvm incorporates one or more electronic vacuum tubes which used
for amplification and rectification .
The AC or DC input to be measured is applied through the
appropriate terminals to the function switch to measure DC voltage the
input is directly said to the range detector.
Operating has a voltage divider circuit where the signal is reduced to
a suitable range for succeeding amplifier circuit [for AC voltage].
The output from the amplifier is shown on the display.
In it is insensitive to free changes and draws little current from the ckt
and gives better output.
Used to measure voltage.
DIAGRAM OF VACUUM TYPE VOLTMETER ( VTVM )
OSCILLOGRAPHS
These are recording devices Which works on the principle of D'Arsonval meter. they
are available in two types

•DIRECT WRITING STYLUS TYPE

Direct writing type of oscillograph Using a stylus with pen that writes directly on a
moving paper .
Basically it has got a moment galvonmeter whose coils receive the input from the
second stage element and a support structure is held between two bearings.
A stylus is fixed to the coil and as the coil deflect depends upon the input does
stylus also reflects correspondingly.
Adjust into coil a paper supplied from my roller moves constantly on the drum. The
stylus tip with a pen contacts the paper on the drum .
The combination of paper and the reflection of Stylus results in writing on the paper.
DIAGRAM OF DIRECT WRITING STYLUS TYPE
MIRROR TYPE OR LIGHT BEAM OSCILLOGRAPH
Similar to stylus type but in place of stylus it has an optical system consisting of
mirror lens lightning arrangements as shown.
It has got the photosensitive paper or a film drive as shown.
In the operation of a beam of a light on the mirror from a light source and reflected
on a constantly moving film or photosensitive paper when the galvanometer Coil
deflects depending on input the mirror directly connected to the coil also deflects thus
light beam falling on it the deflecting light beam than makes a plot on the paper which
is the output.
X–Y PLOTTER
An X–Y plotter is a plotter that operates in two axes of motion ("X" and "Y") in order
to draw continuous vector graphics.
The term was used to differentiate it from standard plotters which had control only of
the "y" axis, the "x" axis being continuously fed to provide a plot of some variable with
time.
 Plotters differ from Inkjet and Laser printers in that a plotter draws a continuous line,
much like a pen on paper, while inkjet and laser printers use a very fine matrix of dots to
form images, such that while a line may appear continuous to the naked eye, it in fact is
a discrete set of points.
XY Plotter basically works with two stepper motors and a servo motor, wherein the
robot plots the input given from the computer on the drawing board using
ATMEGA328p microcontroller on a open-source physical computing platform Arduino.
Most recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus, so that the instantaneous value of
the quantity being recorded can be measured directly on a calibrated scale.
The assembly of a Strip Chart Recorder Working Principle as shown. This recorder
uses a single pen and is servo driven.
Most strip chart recorders use a servo feedback system, to ensure that the
displacement of the pen (stylus) across the paper tracks the input voltage in the
required frequency range.
A potentiometer system is generally used to measure the position of the writing head
(stylus).
The chart paper drive system generally consists of a stepping motor which controls
the movement of the chart paper at a uniform rate.
LOAD CELLS

Load cells are the most popular devices used for measurement of
weights.
Examples
Strain gauge type load cell
Hydraulic type load cell
Diaphragm type load cell
Spool type load cell
Ring type load cell.
STRAIN GAUGE TYPE LOAD CELL
It is also known as a electrical load cell which we use to measure the force or weight.
It gives output in terms of an electrical resist which is proportional to the weight
Being supported by the load Cells.
 It can be designed to operate either in tension or compression Strain gauge is
mounted on metal member cell depends upon a dameterical change of the of these
metal member to produce a proportional change in string gauge which is connected into
wheat stone Bridge circuit Where changes in it's resistance or accurately measured by
an indicating or recording instrument.
PROVING RING
A proving ring is a device used to measure force.
 It consists of an elastic ring in which the deflection of the ring when
loaded along a diameter is measured by means of a micrometer screw
and a vibrating reed.
TORQUE MEASURING / POWER MEASURING TORQUE /
TWISTING MOMENT / TORSION

Torsion is a power that a shaft transmits per Radian per second of ration also it is called
turning effect or a couple.
T=force *perpendicular distance
P=(2πNT)/60*1000 in KW
The important reason for measuring a torque is to obtain load/force information
necessary for stress or deflection analysis.

Torque measuring devices are called dynamometers basically they are three types :

1)Absorption dynamometer (mechanical dynamometer):

They absorb the mechanical energy as a torque is measured and hence a particularly
useful for measuring power or torque developed by a power sources such as engines
or electric motors example: prony brakes etc..,
2) Driving dynamometers(Electrical Dynamometers):
These dynamometers measure power or torque and as well as provide
energy to operate the devices to be tested.They are useful in
determining performance charcteristics of the devices Such as
Pumps,compressors example:eddy current,AC motors and generators.

3) Transmission dynamometer( torque meter):

These are passive devices placed at on appropriate location within a
machine or in between machines to sense the torque at that location the
neither add nor subtract the transmitted energy/power called torque
meters.
MECHANICAL DYNAMOMETERS

(I) PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER

Pony Brake is one of the simplest dynamometers for measuring power

output (brake power).
It is to attempt to stop the engine using a brake on the flywheel and
measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will support, as
it tries to rotate with the flywheel.

Prony brake dynamometer power measurement

The Prony brake shown in the above consists of a wooden block,
frame, rope, brake shoes and flywheel. It works on the principle of
converting power into heat by dry friction. Spring-loaded bolts are
provided to increase the friction by tightening the wooden block.
The whole of the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this
type of dynamometer must the cooled.
The brake power is given by the formula Brake Power
(Pb) = 2πNT
Where T = Weight applied (W) × distance (l)
(II) ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETER
The rope brake as shown in below figure is another device for
measuring brake power of an engine.
It consists of some turns of rope wound around the rotating drum
attached to the output shaft.
One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other side
to a loading device.
The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum.
Therefore drum in rope brake requires cooling.

Rope brake dynamometer for power measurement

Rope brake dynamometers are cheap and can be constructed quickly
but brake power can’t be measured accurately because of change in the
friction coefficient of the rope with a change in temperature.
The brake power is given by the formula
Brake Power ,
(Pb) = πDN (W − S)
Where,
D is the brake drum diameter,
W is the weight of the load and
S is the spring balance reading.
GAUGE DYNAMOMETERS

This type of gauges are widely used because mechanical methods

for measurement strain are not very reliable.
 It is an electro-mechanical technique and the dynamometer used in
process can be termed as electro-mechanical dynamometer.
Wheatstone bridge circuit is commonly used in connection with
electrical strain gauges.
THE
END