PROBLEM SOLVING

TECHNIQUES
CHAPTER -1
 INTRODUCTION
• Computer is an electronic device which is used
to perform calculations with great speed.
• Computer System
A computer system is made up of two major
components :Hardware & Software.
 HARDWARE
The physical components of the computer
system is called Hardware.
Eg: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor etc
 SOFTWARE
The logical components of the computer
system is known as software.
Eg: The Programs like C,C++,Java etc
Computer Hardware
• The hardware components of the computer
system consists of 5 major parts.
• Input devices- It is used to accept the data
entered by the user. Eg:- Keyboard,
Mouse, Scanner
etc
• Central Processing Unit(CPU)- CPU is
known as the heart or brain of the computer.
Its function is to control and co-ordinate all the
operations in the computer system.
 Parts of CPU
• Control Unit – It controls and co-ordinates
all the operations in the CPU.
• Arithmetic & Logic Unit – This part of the
CPU is used to perform the arithmetic & logic
operations like +,-,*,/,% etc
• Memory Unit – It is used to store information.
 Types of Memory

•  Primary Memory – It is the Main Memory

of the computer.
Eg: RAM – Random Access Memory
- It is Volatile Memory
-Read & Write Operations are possible
ROM – Read Only memory
- It is Non – Volatile Memory
- Only Read operation is possible.
 Secondary Memory – It is also known as
Auxiliary
Memory.
- They are not directly accessed by the CPU.

Eg: Magnetic Disk, Pendrive, CD,

Floppy Disk, Hard disk etc.
• Output Device :- It is used to display the
results after processing.
• Eg: Printer, Monitor Etc.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYLCE/
Steps in Problem Solving
 * Algorithm
• Algorithm is a step by step procedure to solve
a given problem in finite number of steps.
or
• The steps taken to solve a problem is called
as algorithm. In computer programming term,
algorithm is useful for you
to solve the problem in the most efficient way.
 *Advantages of Algorithm
• It is easy to understand since it is written in
normal English language.
• It consists of finite number of steps.
• Debugging is very easy since it is a step by
step instruction.
• It is independent of any programming
language so that the user need not know the
syntax of a programming language.
 *Disadvantage
• Developing algorithms for large and complex
problems would be time consuming.
• Complex logic through algorithm would be
difficult to understand.
Standard Notations of Algorithm
• Name: It specifies the problem.
• Step Number : Each instruction is identified
by a number called step number.
• INPUT/OUTPUT: It describes the inputs &
outputs.
• Beginning/Termination :It indicates the
beginning and ending of the algorithm with a
START/STOP statement.
 Write an algorithm to prepare a cup of tea.
• Step 1:- START
• Step 2:- Take a vessel
• Step 3:- Pour Water
• Step 4:- On the stove
• Step 5:- Place the vessel on the stove.
• Step 6:- Allow it to boil.
• Step 7:- Put tea powder
• Step 8:- Pour sufficient milk
• Step 9:- Add sugar
• Step 10:- STOP
 Write an algorithm to add two numbers
• Step 1:- START
• Step 2:- INPUT A and B
• Step 3:- CALCULATE SUM=A+B
• Step 4:- OUTPUT SUM
• Step 5:- STOP
Write an algorithm to find the average of 4
numbers
• Step 1:- START
• Step 2:- INPUT m1,m2,m3 and m4
• Step 3:- CALCULATE
TOTAL = m1+m2+m3+m4
• Step 4:- CALCULATE AVERAGE =TOTAL/4
• Step 5:- OUTPUT AVERAGE
• Step 6:-STOP
 Write an algorithm to find the biggest of 2
numbers
• Step 1:- START
• Step 2:- INPUT a and b
• Step 3:- IF a >b then PRINT Biggest is a
• Step 4:-else PRINT biggest is b
• Step 5:- STOP
*Write an algorithm to find the biggest of 3
numbers(let three numbers are a,b,c)
• Step 1:- START
• Step 2:- INPUT a ,b and c
• Step 3:- If (a >b) and (a>c) then PRINT
Biggest is a
• Step 4:- else if (b>c) then PRINT Biggest is b ,
else print biggest is c
• Step 5:- STOP
 Applications of Algorithm
•Internet
•e-Commerce
•Weather Forecasting
•Linear Programming – optimum solution for a given
problem.
•Shortest Path Algorithm – shortest path
between two nodes.
•Speech Recognition
•Image Processing
 *Qualities of Good Algorithm
• They are simple & Powerful.
• They are easy to understand.
• They can be easily modified.
• They can be documented to be used by others
who do not have a detailed knowledge pf
inner working.
• They are independent of programming
languages.
 *Analysis of algorithms
• Analysis of algorithms is the determination of
the amount of time ,space & resources
required to execute it.
Or
• The analysis of algorithms is the process of
finding the computational complexity of
algorithms – the amount of time, storage, or
other resources needed to execute them.
 *Complexity of an Algorithm
• Complexity of an algorithm is a measure of the
amount of time/space required by an
algorithm for an input of given size(n).
• Usually, the efficiency or running time of an
algorithm is stated as a function related to the
time complexity & space complexity.
• Space Complexity of an algorithm is the total
amount of space (computer memory) required
by the algorithm to complete its execution.
• Time complexity of an algorithm is the total
amount of time required by an algorithm to
complete its execution..
 Types of algorithm analysis −
• Priori Analysis – Checking the algorithm
before it is implemented.
• Posteriori Analysis - Checking the algorithm
after it is implemented.
• Worst-case − The maximum number of steps
taken on input data of n elements.
• Best-case − The minimum number of steps
taken on data of n elements.
• Average case − An average number of steps
taken on input data of n elements..
 *Asymptotic Notations
• It is the mathematical way of representing the time
complexity.
• Execution time of an algorithm depends on the
instruction set, processor speed, I/O speed. Hence,
we estimate the efficiency of an algorithm
• Following asymptotic notations are used to calculate
the running time complexity of an algorithm.
• O − Big Oh – upper bound
• Ω − Omega – lower bound
• θ − Theta- average bound
• Any function can be represented in either upper
bound, lower bound or in average bound.
 (Big Oh) : Asymptotic Upper Bound

• Big Oh notation is used to describe how the

size of the input data affects an algorithm’s
running time.
• This method is used to find the upper bound
of an algorithm’s running time or growth
rate of function.(worst case)
Therefore f(n) =O(n)
Example
• If I have a function f(n) = 2n+3
then 2n+3 = -------? Which should be greater than
2n+3.
Therefore lets take 2n+3 <=10n
let n=1
therefore 5<=10 ----true n>=1

According Big O Notation f(n)= O(g(n))

Therefore f(n) =O(n) which is closer to the function.
 Omega Notation
• This notation is used to find the lower bound
behaviour of a function.
• Lower bound behaviour means the algorithm
will take the least execution time.(best case)
 Definition
• As per the definition, the function
f(n) = (g(n)) if and only if there exists a positive
constants c and n0 such that
f(n)>=c*g(n) for all n>=n0
 Example- f(n)>=c*g(n) for all n>=n0
• If I have a function f(n) = 2n+3
then 2n+3 = -------? Which should be less than 2n+3.
Therefore lets take 2n+3 >=1*n
let n=1
therefore 5>=1 ----true for all n>=1
It is in the format that
f(n)=2n+3
c1
ng(n)

According omega Notation f(n)= (g(n))

Therefore f(n) = (n) which is closer to the function.
 Theta Notation

The theta notation can be used when the function

f(n) can be bounded both from lower bound
and upper bound.
Definition: The function f(n)= g(n),
if and only if there exists a positive
constants c1,c2 and n0 such that
c1*g(n)<=f(n)<=c2*g(n)
 Example
• F(n)=2n+3
1*n <= 2n+3 <= 10*n
This is in the form c1*g(n)<=f(n)<=c2*g(n)
Therefore we can write
F(n)= (n) and this is the Average bound of a
function f(n).
Growth of functions in algorithm
• Growth of functions are used to estimate the
number of steps an algorithm uses as its
input grows. (Running time)
• It depends on the time complexity.
*Standard Mathematical Notations
& Functions
• Monotonicity
- The monotonicity of a function gives an idea about
the behavior of the function. (whether it is increasing
or decreasing)
• - A function is said to be monotonically increasing if
its values are only rising and never falling.
• eg:- f(x) = 2x+3
• - A function is said to be monotonically
decreasing if its values are only falling and never
rising.
• eg:- f(x) = -x3
 Floor & Ceil Functions
• The floor() function rounds down to the
nearest integer.
• Eg: floor(2.5)= 2 , floor(2.9)= 2
• The ceil() function rounds up to the
nearest integer.
• Eg: ceil(2.5)= 3 , ceil(2.9)= 3
 Remainder Function(Mod)
• REMAINDER returns the remainder of n2
divided by n1 .
• Eg: 5 (mod 2) = 1
30 (mod 5) = 0
 Absolute Value Function
• Returns the absolute value of a number. The
absolute value of a number is the number
without its sign.
Eg: ABS(-99)= 99
abs(-33.24) =33.24
 Summation Symbol(Σ)
• The symbol Σ (sigma) is used to denote a sum
of multiple terms.
• For example, the sum of first n whole
numbers can be represented in the following
manner:
 Factorial Function
• n! - Denotes the product of the positive
integers from 1 to n.
• Eg: 4! = 1*2*3*4
4!=24
5!= 1*2*3*4*5
5!=120
 Permutation
• A Permutation of a set is the arrangement of
the elements of the set in some order.
• Eg: A set contains a, b, c. Then the various
permutation combinations can be
abc, acb, bca, cab, bac, cba
 Exponents
• Exponent defines the number of times a
number is multiplied by itself.
• For example, in the expression 24, 4 is the
exponent
• Ie, 2*2*2*2 =16
 Chapter -2
Fundamental algorithms
 *1.Swaping(Exchanging of values of two
variables)
• Step 1: Start
• Step 2: Declare the three variables A,B,Temp
• Step 3:INPUT A,B and Temp
• Step 4: Let Temp=A
• Step 5: A=B
• Step 6: B=Temp
• Step 7: OUTPUT A and B
• Step 8: Stop
 2. Counting (Count the number of digits in
an integer)
• Step 1: Start
• Step 2: Declare the variables n and i
• Step 3: INPUT n and initialize i=0
• Step 4: While (n is not equal to 0)
• Step 5:n=n/10
• Step 6:i=i+1
• Step 7: While end
• Step 8: Print i
• Step 9:Stop
 *3. Summation of numbers(Sum of N
Natural numbers)
• Step 1: Start
• Step 2: Declare the variables n, i and sum
• Step 3: INPUT n and initialize sum=0,i=1
• Step 4:while i less than or equal to n do the following n
ie,(i<=n)
• Step 5: Sum =Sum+i
• Step 6:Increment the i ,i=i+1
• Step 7: while End
• Step 7:Print Sum
• Step 8:Stop
 *4. Factorial of a number
• Step 1: Start
• Step 2: Declare Variable n, fact, i
• Step 3: INPUT n
• Step 4: Initialize the variables fact=1 and i=1
• Step 5: Repeat Until i<=n
5.1:- fact=fact*i
5.2 :- i=i+1
• Step 6: Print fact
• Step 7: Stop
 *5.Fibonacci Series(0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13…)
• Step 1: - Start
• Step 2 : - Declare the variables f1,f2,f3,n
• Step 3:- INPUT n (no. of terms in the series)
• Step 4:-Initialize f1=0 , f2=1
• Step 5:- DISPLAY f1,f2
• Step 6:- Calculate f3=f1+f2
• Step 7:- DISPLAY f3
• Step 8:- Set f1=f2, f2=f3
• Step 9:- REPEAT steps 6- 8 for n times
• Step 10:- Stop
 *6. Reverse of a number
• Step 1:- Start
• Step 2:- Declare a variable n, rev =0 and rem
• Step 3:- Read the number n;
• Step 4:- While n not equal 0
• Step 5:- rem=n%10;
• Step 6:- rev=rev * 10 + rem;
• Step 7:- n=n/10;
• Step 8:- End While
• Step 9 :- Print rev
•
 Character to number conversion
• Step 1: Start
• Step 2: Declare n , i, value, length.
• Step 3: Initialize value=0
• Step 4: Input character value of n.
• Step 5: Initialize length = length of n
• Step 6: Loop over the characters in ‘n’ from
left to right.
for i= 1 to length
• Step 7: value = value *10 + (ASCII of i th
character - ASCII of 0)
• Step 8:Print value
• Step 9: Stop