Research Methods for MPH students

By
Wubegzier Mekonnen (PhD)
Associate Professor

School of Public Health, Department of

RFPH
Objectives of this Lecture
I. Overview and introduction to the module
II. Science and research
III. The research paradigms
IV. Types of research
V. Overview of the research process
Overview and Introduction to the
module
• Credit value of module: 7 ECTS
• Module Duration: 4 weeks (3 weeks lecture and one
week individual work)
• Pre-requisite module code(s): Basics of Epidemiology
and Biostatistics
• The main aim of this module is to be able to equip
students with the basic techniques of planning and
execution of research in public health and medicine.
Overview and Introduction to the
module
• The learner will acquire the necessary knowledge,
attitude and skill in research methods
• The learner will be enabled to exercise the development
of the thesis proposal in the course of the training.
Overview and Introduction to
module
Learning outcomes: By the end of the module students will be able
to:
•To identify researchable problem
•Formulate a research question
•Design appropriate research methods, and draw proper sample
size
•Construct research measurement tools and questionnaires
•Identify the different sources of error
•Conduct quantitative and qualitative research
•Analyze data using descriptive, univariate and multivariate
techniques
•Interpret and present the finding of the study
•Communicate results of research to policy makers, scientific
community and the public
Overview and introduction to the
module
Module Contents
•Introduction to research and health research method.
•Overview of research proposal
•Formulation of research question
•Literature review
•Survey research methods
•Type of sampling methods
•Errors in sampling
•Questionnaire design; pre-testing
•Qualitative research methods and application
•Coding Questionnaire and data entry
•Data organization and exploration
•Organizational/administrative issues in conducting research
•Ethical issues in research requirements
•Univariate, Bivariate analysis and Multivariate analysis
•Introduction to statistical software and application in research (STATA and SPSS)
•Citation of references
•Writing thesis/ communication of results
Overview and introduction to the
module
• Assessment criteria:
• Written exam weighted out of 50%
• Progressive assessment by advisor, critical review of the
submitted proposal work and defense (50%).
•Assessment strategy:
• Continuous evaluation of the research proposal by advisor/s,
• Review of the proposal by assigned reviewers from the school
and proposal defense at public.
• Students will be finally evaluated by their respective thesis
advisors after submitting their thesis research proposal for
ethical review.
Scientific knowledge
• Science is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the
physical and natural world through observation, experimentation, and the
testing of theories against the evidence obtained.
Source: the world of science and technology
• The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge.
• Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws and theories to
explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are acquired using the
scientific method.
• Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors, while theories are
systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior.
Words for thought:
• Can you give an example of laws ?
• How about theories?
• What is the difference between a theory and a model?
Scientific knowledge
• The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that
can explain natural or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific
knowledge.
• It is important to understand that this knowledge may be imperfect or even
quite far from the truth.
• Sometimes, there may not be a single universal truth, but rather an
equilibrium of “multiple truths.”
• We must understand that the theories, upon which scientific knowledge is
based, are only explanations of a particular phenomenon, as suggested by a
scientist.
• As such, there may be good or poor explanations, depending on the extent to
which those explanations fit well with reality, and consequently, there may be
good or poor theories.
• The progress of science is marked by our progression over time from poorer
theories to better theories, through better observations using more accurate
instruments and more informed logical reasoning.
Scientific knowledge
• We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of
logic and evidence.
• Logic (theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and
only two, pillars upon which scientific knowledge is based.
• In science, theories and observations are interrelated and
cannot exist without each other.
• Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe,
and observations help validate or refine existing theory or
construct new theory.
• Any other means of knowledge acquisition, such as faith or
authority cannot be considered science.
Scientific research
• Scientific research operates at two levels:
1. a theoretical level and;
2. an empirical level.

• The theoretical level is concerned with developing abstract

concepts about a natural or social phenomenon and
relationships between those concepts (i.e., build “theories”),
• While the empirical level is concerned with testing the theoretical
concepts and relationships to see how well they reflect our observations
of reality, with the goal of ultimately building better theories.
• Over time, a theory becomes more and more refined (i.e., fits
the observed reality better), and the science gains maturity.
Scientific research
• Scientific research involves continually moving back and
forth between theory and observations.
• Both theory and observations are essential components
of scientific research.
• For instance, relying solely on observations for making
inferences and ignoring theory is not considered valid
scientific research.
 Scientific research
• Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one of
two possible forms:
1. inductive or
2. deductive.
• In inductive research , the goal of a researcher is to infer theoretical concepts and
patterns from observed data. Hence, inductive research is also called theory-building
research,
• In deductive research , the goal of the researcher is to test concepts and patterns
known from theory using new empirical data. And deductive research is theory-
testing research. Note here that the goal of theory-testing is not just to test a theory,
but possibly to refine, improve, and extend it.
• Inductive and deductive researches are complementary in nature.
• Note that inductive and deductive research are two halves of the research cycle that
constantly iterates between theory and observations.
• You cannot do inductive or deductive research if you are not familiar with both the
theory and data components of research.
• Naturally, a complete researcher is one who can traverse the entire research cycle
and can handle both inductive and deductive research.
Scientific research
Scientific Research
• Theory building and theory testing are particularly
difficult in the social sciences, given the imprecise
nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to
measure them, and the presence of many unaccounted
factors that can also influence the phenomenon of
interest.
• It is also very difficult to refute theories that do not
work.
• Unlike theories in the natural sciences, social science
theories are rarely perfect, which provides numerous
opportunities for researchers to improve those theories
or build their own alternative theories.
Scientific research
• Conducting scientific research requires two sets of skills – theoretical
and methodological.
• Methodological skills (“know-how”) are relatively standard, invariant
across disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs.
• Theoretical skills (“know-what”) is considerably harder to master,
requires years of observation and reflection, and are tacit skills that
cannot be “taught” but rather learned though experience.
• All of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind, such as Galileo,
Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr, Adam Smith, Charles Darwin, and Herbert
Simon, were master theoreticians, and they are remembered for the
theories they postulated that transformed the course of science.
• Methodological skills are needed to be an ordinary researcher, but
theoretical skills are needed to be an extraordinary researcher!
Scientific method
• Scientific method refers to a standardized set of
techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as
how to make valid observations, how to interpret
results, and how to generalize those results.
• The scientific method allows researchers to
independently and impartially test preexisting theories
and prior findings, and subject them to open debate,
modifications, or enhancements.
Scientific method

• The scientific method must satisfy four characteristics:

1. Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or
repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.
2. Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must
be defined with such precision that others can use those definitions to
measure those concepts and test that theory.
3. Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven.
Theories that cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories
and any such knowledge is not scientific knowledge. A theory that is
specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts are not accurately
measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore not scientific.
4. Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon,
scientists must always accept the simplest or logically most
economical explanation. This concept is called parsimony or “Occam’s
razor.” Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing overly complex or
outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and relationships
that may explain a little bit of everything but nothing in particular.
The research paradigms
• What is a research paradigm?
• Dictionary meaning of paradigm is “a philosophical and
theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline
within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the
experiments performed in support of them are
formulated.”
• As applied in the context of research, a research
paradigm is a worldview or philosophical
framework, including ideas, beliefs, and biases,
that guides the research process.
• The research paradigm in which a study is situated
helps determine the manner in which the research will
be conducted.
The research paradigms
• The research paradigm is the framework into which the theories and
practices of your discipline fit to create the research plan.
• This foundation guides all areas of your research plan, including the
aim of the study, research question, instruments or measurements
used, and analysis methods.
• Most research paradigms are based on one of two model types:
positivism or interpretivism.
• These guide the theories and methodologies used in the research
project.
• In general, positivist research paradigms lead to quantitative studies
and interpretivist research paradigms lead to qualitative studies.
• Of course, there are many variations of both of these research
paradigm types, some of which lead to mixed-method studies.
The research paradigms
• So, now you may be asking, what makes up a research
paradigm? How are they formed and categorized?
• The research paradigm framework is supported by three
pillars: ontology, epistemology, and methodology.
• Some scholars have recently begun adding another
pillar to research paradigms: ethics or axiology
The research paradigms
The research paradigms
• Ontology is the study of the nature of reality.
• Is there a single reality, multiple realities, or no reality at all?
• These are the questions that the philosophy of ontology attempts to
answer.
• The oft-used example of an ontological question is “Does God exist?”
Two possible single realities exist: yes or no.
• Think about your research project with this in mind; that is, does a single
reality exist within your research? If you’re a medical researcher, the
answer is probably yes. You’re looking for specific results that ideally
have clear yes or no answers. If you’re an anthropologist, there probably
isn’t one clear, specific answer to your research question but multiple
possible realities, and the study results are interpreted through the
researcher’s viewpoint or paradigm.
Research paradigms
• Epistemology is the study of knowledge and how we can know reality.
• It incorporates the extent and ways to gain knowledge and how to
validate that knowledge.
• A frequently used example question in epistemology is “How is it
possible to know whether or not God exists?”
• The epistemology of your research project will help determine your
approach to your study. For example, if the medical researcher believes
there is one singular truth, an objective approach will be taken. On the
other hand, if the anthropologist believes in multiple realities viewed
through a cultural lens, the research results will be more subjective and
understood only in the proper context. This difference divides research
studies into those using quantitative and qualitative techniques.
Research paradigms
• Methodology is the study of how one investigates the environment
and validates the knowledge gained. It attempts to answer the
question “how to go about discovering the answer/reality.”
• Addressing this pillar leads to specific data collection and analysis
plans.
• The medical researcher may create a research plan that includes a
clinical trial, during which blood tests that measure a specific protein
are conducted. These results are then analyzed, with a focus on
differences within groups. The anthropologist, on the other hand,
may conduct observations, examine artifacts, or set up interviews to
determine certain aspects of reality within the context of a group’s
culture. In this situation, yes or no answers are not sought but a truth
is discovered.
What is the purpose of research
paradigms?
• Put all the information about the three pillars of a research
paradigm together, and you can see the purpose of research paradigms.
• Research paradigms establish the structure and foundation for a research
project.
• Once the research paradigm has been determined, an appropriate
research plan can be created.
• The philosophical basis of the study guides what knowledge is sought, how
that knowledge can be discovered, and how to form the collected
information or data into the knowledge being sought.
• The research paradigm clearly outlines the path to investigate your topic.
• This brings clarity to your study and improves the quality of your methods
and analysis.
What is the purpose of research
paradigms?
• In addition, it is important for researchers to understand
how their own beliefs, assumptions, and biases can
affect the research process. The study’s data collection,
analysis, and interpretation will be impacted by the
worldview of the researcher.
• Knowing the underlying research paradigm and how it
frames the study allows researchers to better
understand the effect of their perspective on the study
results.
Types of research paradigms
• There are two basic types of research paradigms, from which other
frequently used paradigms are derived.
1. Positivist paradigm – Proponents of a positivist paradigm believe
that there is a single reality that can be measured and understood.
Therefore, these researchers are likely to utilize quantitative methods
in their studies. The research process for positivist paradigm studies
tend to propose an empirical hypothesis, which is then supported or
refuted through the data collection and analysis. Positivists approach
research in an objective manner and statistically investigate the
existence of quantitative relationships between variables instead of
looking for the qualitative reason behind those relationships.
Researchers who subscribe to this paradigm also believe that the
results of one study can be generalized to similar situations. Positivist
paradigms are most frequently used by physical scientists.
Types of research paradigms
2. Interpretivism paradigm – Interpretivists believe in the existence of
multiple realities rather than a single reality.
• This is the research paradigm used by the majority of qualitative studies
conducted in the social sciences.
• Interpretivism holds that because human behavior is so complex, it cannot be
studied by probabilistic models, such as those used under positivist paradigms.
• Knowledge can only be created by interpreting the meanings that people put
on behaviors and events.
• Therefore, studies employing this framework are necessarily subjective and are
greatly affected by the researcher’s personal viewpoint.
• Interpretivist paradigm research is conducted within the reality of those being
studied, not in a contrived environment such as a laboratory.
• Because of the nature of interpretivist studies, their results are only valid under
the particular circumstances of the study and are usually not generalizable.
Types of research paradigms
• However, many other variations of these paradigms
have been used.
• Pragmatism paradigm – Pragmatists believe that
reality is continually changing amid the flow of
constantly changing situations. Therefore, rather than
use a single research paradigm, they employ the
framework that is most applicable to the research
question they are examining. Both qualitative and
quantitative techniques are often used as positivist and
interpretivist approaches are combined. Pragmatists
believe that the best research method is the one that
will most effectively address the research question.
Types of research paradigms
• Constructivist paradigm – Like interpretivists, constructivists
believe that there are numerous realities, not a single reality.
The constructivist paradigm holds that people construct their
own understanding of the world through experiencing and
reflecting on those experiences. Constructivist research seeks to
understand the meanings that people attach to those
experiences. Therefore, qualitative techniques, such as
interviews and case studies, are frequently used. Constructivists
are seeking the “why” of events. Constructivism is also a
popular theory of learning that focuses on how children and
other learners create knowledge from their experiences and
learn better through experimentation than through direct
instruction.
Types of research paradigms
• Post-positivism paradigm – Post-positivists veer away from the
concept of reality as being an absolute certainty and view it instead
in a more probabilistic manner, thus taking a more subjective
viewpoint. They believe that research outcomes can never be
totally objective and a researcher’s worldview and biases can never
be completely removed from the research results.
• Transformative paradigm – Proponents of transformative
research reject both positivism and interpretivism, believing that
these frameworks do not accurately represent the experiences of
marginalized communities. Transformative researchers generally
use both qualitative and quantitative techniques to better
understand the disparities in community relationships, support
social justice, and ultimately ensure transformative change.
Combining research paradigms
• While most research is based on either a positivist (quantitative)
or interpretivist (qualitative) foundations, some studies combine
both.
• For example, quantitative and qualitative techniques are
frequently used together in psychology studies.
• These types of studies are referred to as mixed-method research.
• Some research paradigms are themselves combinations of other
paradigms and frequently employ all the associated research
methods.
• Post-positivism combines the paradigms of positivism and
interpretivism.
A paradigm shift
• Research studies aren’t the only things that can be
considered to have paradigms.
• Researchers themselves bring a specific worldview to
their work and produce higher quality work when they
are aware of the effect their perspective has on their
results.
• Understanding all the aspects of a personal paradigm,
including beliefs, habits, and behaviors, can make it
possible for that paradigm to be changed.
• Here are suggested steps to successfully shift your
personal paradigm and increase the quality of your
research
Five steps to a paradigm shift
1.Identify the paradigm element you want to change – what part of your
worldview do you want to change? What habitual or hidden behavior may be
adversely affecting your research or your life?
2.Write down your goals – setting specific desired outcomes and putting them
down on paper sets them in your subconscious.
3.Adjust your mindset – intentionally influencing your thoughts to support your
goals can motivate you to create the change you want. Some suggested activities
to help with this include journaling, reading motivational books, and spending
time with like-minded people.
4.Do uncomfortable things – you need to get out of your comfort zone to effect
real change. This will get your subconscious out of its usual habits and move you
toward your goal.
5.Practice being who you want to be – the change you want will become
solidified and part of your new paradigm once you break out of your old habit and
keep repeating the new behavior so as to cement it in your subconscious.
Types of scientific research
• Depending on the purpose of research, scientific
research projects can be grouped into three types:
1. Exploratory,
2. Descriptive, and
3. Explanatory.
Types of scientific research
• Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of
inquiry, where the goals of the research are:
1. to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular
phenomenon, problem, or behavior,
2. to generate some initial ideas (or “hunches”) about that
phenomenon, or
3. to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study
regarding that phenomenon
Types of scientific research
• Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations
and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest.
• These observations must be based on the scientific method (i.e.,
must be replicable, precise, etc.), and therefore, are more reliable
than casual observations by untrained people.
• Examples of descriptive research are tabulation of demographic
statistics by the Central Statistical office who use the same or
similar instruments for estimating employment by sector or
population growth by ethnicity over multiple employment surveys
or censuses. If any changes are made to the measuring
instruments, estimates are provided with and without the
changed instrumentation to allow the readers to make a fair
before-and-after comparison regarding population or employment
trends.
Types of scientific research
• Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed
phenomena, problems, or behaviors.
• While descriptive research examines the what, where,
and when of a phenomenon, explanatory research
seeks answers to why and how types of questions.
• It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by
identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target
phenomenon.
• Example: understanding the reasons behind adolescent
crime or gang violence, with the goal of prescribing
strategies to overcome such societal ailments
Thinking like a researcher
• Conducting good research requires first retraining your brain
to think like a researcher.
• This requires visualizing the abstract from actual
observations, mentally “connecting the dots” to identify
hidden concepts and patterns, and synthesizing those
patterns into generalizable laws and theories that apply to
other contexts beyond the domain of the initial observations.
• Research involves constantly moving back and forth from an
empirical plane where observations are conducted to a
theoretical plane where these observations are abstracted
into generalizable laws and theories.
Thinking like a researcher
• Some of the mental abstractions needed to think like a
researcher include unit of analysis, constructs,
hypotheses, operationalization, theories, models,
induction, deduction, and so fort.
• The unit of analysis refers to the person, collective, or object
that is the target of the investigation.
• Knowingly or unknowingly, we use different kinds of concepts
in our everyday conversations. Some of these concepts have
been developed over time through our shared language. we
create our own concepts to describe a unique characteristic
not described in prior research. For instance, technostress
Thinking like a researcher
• A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically
chosen (or “created”) to explain a given phenomenon.
• Scientific research requires operational definitions that
define constructs in terms of how they will be
empirically measured.
Think like a researcher

Fig: The theoretical and Empirical planes of research

Think like a researcher

Figure: Nomological network of constructs

Think like a researcher

Fig: The model-building process

Overview of the research process
• Identify and Develop Your Topic
• Find Background Information
• Use Catalogs to Find Books and Media
• Use Databases to Find Journal Articles
• Find Internet Resources
• Evaluate What You Find
• Cite What You Find Using a Standard Format.
Overview of the research process
Step 1: Identify the problem
• Finding an issue or formulating a research question is
the first step. A well-defined research problem will guide
the researcher through all stages of the research
process, from setting objectives to choosing a
technique.
• There are a number of approaches to get insight into a
topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such as:
• A preliminary survey
• Case studies
• Interviews with a small group of people
• Observational survey
Step 2: Evaluate the literature
• A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the
research process.
• It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem.
• Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs
to find out more about it.
• This stage gives problem-zone background.
• It teaches the investigator about previous research, how they were
conducted, and its conclusions.
• The researcher can build consistency between his work and others
through a literature review.
• Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of
knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.
Step 3: Create Hypotheses
• Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step
after narrowing down the research topic and defining it.
• A belief solves logical relationships between variables.
• In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a
certain amount of expertise in the field.
• It is important for researchers to keep in mind while
formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the
research topic.
• Researchers are able to concentrate their efforts and stay
committed to their objectives when they develop theories to
guide their work.
Step 4: Research design
• Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and
answering research questions.
• It outlines how to get the relevant information.
• Its goal is to design research to test hypotheses, address the
research questions, and provide decision-making insights.
• The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort
required to acquire meaningful evidence.
• This plan fits into four categories:
• Exploration and Surveys
• Experiment
• Data Analysis
• Observation
Step 5: Describe the population
• Research projects usually look at a specific group of people,
facilities, or how technology is used in the business.
• In research, the term population refers to this study group.
• The research topic and purpose help determine the study
group.
• Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of
people in the community. In that case, the research could
target a specific age group, males or females, a geographic
location, or an ethnic group.
• A final step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or
population so that the results may be generalized.
Step 6: Data collection
• Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or
information required to answer the research issue.
• Every research collected data, either from the literature or the people
being studied.
• Data must be collected from the two categories of researchers. These
sources may provide primary data.
• Experiment
• Questionnaire
• Observation
• Interview
• Secondary data categories are:
• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports
• An approach based on library resources
Step 7: Data Analysis
• During research design, the researcher plans data
analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it.
• The data is examined based on the approach in this step.
• The research findings are reviewed and reported.
• Data analysis involves a number of closely related
stages, such as setting up categories, applying these
categories to raw data through coding and tabulation,
and then drawing statistical conclusions.
• The researcher can examine the acquired data using a
variety of statistical methods.
Step 8: Report writing
• After completing these steps, the researcher must
prepare a report detailing his findings. The report must be
carefully composed with the following in mind:
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Study framework
• Objectives
• Methods
• Results
• Discussions
• Strengths and Limitations
• Conclusions and recommendations
 Thank you!
[email protected]
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School of Public Health, Department of