Unit-3

IOT ARCHITECTURE AND PROTOCOLS

MS. SHRUTI SAXENA

IOT DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOL
PHY/MAC Layer
(3GPP MTC,
IEEE 802.11,
IEEE 802.15),
WirelessHART,
ZWave,
Bluetooth Low Energy,
Zigbee Smart Energy,
DASH7
PHY (Physical) and MAC (Medium Access
Control)
In IoT (Internet of Things), the PHY
(Physical) and MAC (Medium Access
Control) layers are part of the OSI
model's Data Link Layer (Layer 2),
and they play crucial roles in
ensuring communication between
IoT devices.
1-Physical Layer (PHY)
1. The PHY layer is responsible for the transmission
and reception of raw data over a physical medium
(such as wireless radio waves, cables, or optical
fibers). It defines the hardware requirements and
handles the following:
• Modulation and demodulation of signals
• Data encoding (converting digital data into signals)
• Frequency selection and channel allocation
• Signal strength and power control
• Synchronization (timing information for signals)
• Data rate and transmission speeds
• Error detection (e.g., checking signal integrity)
Different PHY layer standards:
For IoT, different PHY layer standards may be
used depending on the type of network, such
as:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 series)
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4)
• LoRa (Low Power Wide Area Network)
• NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT, a cellular
technology)
• LTE/5G (for mobile communication)
2-Medium Access Control Layer (MAC)
 2. Medium Access Control Layer (MAC)
 The MAC layer manages how devices access the network and use the
communication medium. It controls data transfer between devices and
ensures efficient, collision-free communication. The key responsibilities
of the MAC layer include:
• Framing: Encapsulating data into frames and addressing the
information for proper delivery
• Addressing: Assigning unique MAC addresses to devices for
communication
• Error detection and retransmission: Detecting errors and ensuring
reliable communication
• Medium access control: Determining when a device can transmit data
(avoiding collisions in shared media)
• QoS (Quality of Service): Prioritizing data traffic if necessary (e.g.,
ensuring real-time communication for critical IoT tasks)
• Energy management: For low-power IoT devices, MAC protocols often
manage sleep cycles and energy-efficient transmission strategies
IoT uses a variety of MAC protocols optimized for
different types of communication. These include:
• CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance): Used in Wi-Fi,
Zigbee, and others to avoid data collisions.
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Used
in low-power networks, splitting the
communication into time slots.
• ALOHA-based protocols: For simple, low-
overhead communication in some LPWANs (Low
Power Wide Area Networks).
 3GPP MTC
 3GPP MTC (Machine-Type Communications) refers to a set of standards
and technologies developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) to support machine-to-machine (M2M) communication,
which is a key component of the Internet of Things (IoT). These
technologies are designed to enable low-power, low-data-rate, and cost-
effective communication for a large number of connected devices, such
as sensors, meters, and other IoT devices.
 Key Technologies in 3GPP MTC
1. eMTC (Enhanced Machine-Type Communication)
1. eMTC, also known as LTE Cat-M1, is a 3GPP standard developed as part
of the LTE-Advanced Pro to meet the specific needs of IoT devices.
2. It supports low power consumption, extended coverage, and reduced
complexity for devices, while operating on existing LTE networks.
3. Key features of eMTC:
1. Low-power consumption: Optimized for battery-operated devices with features
like Power Saving Mode (PSM) and Extended Discontinuous Reception (eDRX).
2. Low data rates: eMTC supports data rates of up to 1 Mbps, suitable for many
IoT applications like wearables and sensors.
3. Extended coverage: eMTC is designed for reliable operation in difficult
environments, such as deep indoor locations, with coverage extension
techniques.
4. Mobility support: Unlike NB-IoT, eMTC supports full mobility, making it suitable
for applications such as asset tracking or wearable devices.
1. NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT)
1. NB-IoT is another 3GPP technology specifically designed for low-power,
wide-area (LPWA) IoT applications.
2. It operates in a narrowband spectrum (180 kHz) and offers excellent
coverage and energy efficiency, making it suitable for applications like
smart metering, environmental monitoring, and industrial IoT.

2. Power Saving Mode (PSM) and eDRX (Extended Discontinuous

Reception)
1. Both eMTC and NB-IoT support these power-saving mechanisms to
extend battery life, which is crucial for IoT devices that need to operate
for years without human intervention.
1. Power Saving Mode (PSM): Allows devices to sleep for long periods without
needing to re-establish the network connection after waking up.
2. Extended Discontinuous Reception (eDRX): Allows devices to remain in a
low-power state between communications, checking in with the network only at
scheduled intervals.
3. LTE Cat-0 and LTE Cat-1
1. These are earlier 3GPP categories designed for IoT, with LTE Cat-1
offering modest power and complexity reductions compared to
traditional LTE. LTE Cat-0 was introduced to simplify device design
further but is less widely adopted than eMTC and NB-IoT.
IEEE 802.11
(IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)) for implementing wireless local
area network (WLAN) communication in various
frequency bands. These standards form the
foundation of Wi-Fi, a technology that allows devices
to wirelessly connect to networks and exchange data.
Over time, several versions of the IEEE 802.11
standard have been developed, each offering
improvements in speed, range, capacity, and
frequency utilization. Here's an overview of the key
components of IEEE 802.11, including the major
standards:
Key Features of IEEE 802.11

1. Frequency Bands:
1. 802.11 operates primarily in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, with
newer standards also utilizing the 6 GHz band (Wi-Fi 6E) and 60 GHz band
(WiGig).
2. Different standards use these frequency bands to balance between range,
data rates, and interference resistance.
2. Modulation Techniques:
1. The standards use a variety of modulation schemes to transmit data,
including DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum), OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing), and MIMO (Multiple
Input Multiple Output) technologies, which increase efficiency and
reliability.
3. Data Rates:
1. IEEE 802.11 standards support a range of data rates, from 1-2 Mbps in early
versions to several Gbps in the latest versions like 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) and
802.11be (Wi-Fi 7).
4. Range:
1. The range of Wi-Fi depends on the frequency band and the environment.
Lower frequencies (like 2.4 GHz) have a longer range but lower speeds, while
higher frequencies (like 5 GHz and 60 GHz) offer higher speeds but shorter
range.
IEEE 802.11 standard Architecture
 Key Enhancements in IEEE 802.11 Standards
• MU-MIMO (Multi-User Multi Input Multi OutputMIMO): Allows
multiple devices to send and receive data simultaneously, improving
network efficiency.
• OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access): Enhances
spectral efficiency by dividing channels into smaller sub-channels to serve
multiple devices at once, critical for dense IoT environments.
• Beamforming: Directs signals to specific devices, improving range and
performance in difficult environments.
• Channel Bonding: Combines multiple channels to increase data
throughput.
• TWT (Target Wake Time): Reduces power consumption in devices by
allowing them to schedule check-ins with the access point, improving
battery life for IoT and mobile devices.

 Use Cases of IEEE 802.11 Standards

• Home networking: Connecting devices like laptops, smartphones, and
smart TVs to home routers.
• Enterprise networking: Providing high-speed wireless access in offices,
campuses, and large buildings.
• Public hotspots: Offering Wi-Fi access in public spaces such as airports,
cafés, and stadiums.
• Industrial applications: Supporting communication in IoT, smart factories,
and industrial automation.
IEEE 802.15
 IEEE 802.15 is a working group within the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) that develops
standards for Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs).
WPANs are designed for short-range wireless
communication between devices in a close proximity,
typically within a range of a few meters to tens of meters,
such as in home automation, industrial automation, and
wearable technology.

 The IEEE 802.15 working group has developed various

standards, each tailored for specific types of applications,
including low-power, low-data-rate, high-data-rate, and
ultra-low latency use cases. These standards are commonly
used in IoT (Internet of Things) applications, medical devices,
consumer electronics, and industrial environments.
TG-TASK GROUP
 Key IEEE 802.15 Standards
1. IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth)
1. This standard is based on the Bluetooth technology and was ratified in 2002.
2. Bluetooth is designed for short-range communication, typically in the range of 10 meters.
3. Data rates: Bluetooth Classic supports data rates up to 3 Mbps, while Bluetooth Low Energy
(BLE), introduced later, is optimized for low power consumption and supports up to 1 Mbps.
4. Use cases: Bluetooth is widely used in wireless audio (headsets, speakers), wearables, smart
home devices, and wireless communication between computers and peripherals (like keyboards,
mice).

2. IEEE 802.15.4 (Zigbee, Thread)

Defines the physical layer and media access control for low-rate WPANs. It's the basis for
specifications like Zigbee, ISA100.11a, WirelessHART, MiWi, 6LoWPAN, Thread, Matter,
and SNAP.

1. One of the most popular standards for low-power, low-data-rate communication, it forms the
basis for technologies like Zigbee and Thread.
2. Operates in 2.4 GHz, 868 MHz, and 915 MHz frequency bands.
3. Data rates: Up to 250 kbps, designed for low-bandwidth communication.
4. Low power consumption: Optimized for devices that need to run on batteries for extended
periods.
5. Use cases: Zigbee and Thread are widely used in smart homes, smart lighting, industrial
automation, sensor networks, and medical monitoring systems.
3. .
1.IEEE 802.15.3 (High-Rate
WPANs)
1. This standard is designed for high-data-rate,
short-range communication.
2. Operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band.
3. Data rates: Initially up to 55 Mbps, later
extended to 480 Mbps with enhancements.
4. Use cases: IEEE 802.15.3 is intended for
multimedia applications like wireless video
streaming and high-speed data transfer, but it
hasn't seen widespread adoption due to
competition from other technologies like Wi-Fi
BENEFITS
 IEEE 802.15 is a wireless technology standard that offers many benefits, including:
• Low cost
• IEEE 802.15 is designed for inexpensive devices and low-cost communication.
• Low power consumption
• IEEE 802.15 is designed for low power consumption.
• Reliable communication
• IEEE 802.15 uses mechanisms like error correction and acknowledgment to ensure data is
transmitted accurately and reliably.
• Mesh networking
• IEEE 802.15 can provide redundancy, ensuring that the network can still operate if one
device fails.
• Precision ranging
• Some IEEE 802.15 PHYs can provide precision ranging capability that is accurate to one
meter.
• Low-rate wireless networks
• IEEE 802.15 can be used to create Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs).
• Optical Camera Communications
• IEEE 802.15 can enable scalable data rate, positioning, and message broadcasting using
devices like the flash, display, and image sensor.
• Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
• IEEE 802.15 can be used for WSNs, which can monitor temperature, pressure, moisture,
pollution, sound, vibration, and more.
The main differences between IEEE 802.11 and IEEE
802.15.4 are:
The main differences between IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.15.4 are:
•Data rate
IEEE 802.11 is better for high data rates, constant bit rate streaming,
and longer range. IEEE 802.15.4 is better for small data sizes
and shorter ranges.
•Power consumption
IEEE 802.15.4 is better for resource-constrained ad-hoc networks because
it consumes less power.
However, IEEE 802.11 can have lower energy consumption than IEEE 802.15.4
if its transmission power and receiver sensitivity are limited.
•Payload capacity
IEEE 802.11 has a higher payload capacity than IEEE 802.15.4.
•Coverage range
IEEE 802.11ah can communicate over distances up to 1000 meters,
while IEEE 802.15.4 has a maximum coverage range of 100 meters.
 WirelessHART
WirelessHART is a wireless sensor networking technology ,It is is an open and
industry-standard wireless communication protocol developed for industrial
process automation and monitoring applicationsIt is based on the Highway
Addressable Remote Transducer.
 The HART Communication Protocol (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) is a hybrid analog+digital industrial automation open protocol.

 Its most notable advantage is that it can communicate over legacy 4–20
mA analog instrumentation current loops, sharing the pair of wires used
by the analog-only host systems.
(HART) protocol and uses a 2.4 GHz radio Frequency channel.

How it works
WirelessHART uses a mesh network based on the
IEEE 802.15.4 standard to operate at 2.4 GHz. It uses
time-division multiple-access (TDMA) to synchronize
devices in the network. Each device in the network
can act as a router for other devices, which extends
the network's range and increases reliability.
WirelessHART
Here are some features of WirelessHART:

•Mesh network: WirelessHART uses a mesh network based

on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
•Time synchronization: WirelessHART uses time-division
multiple-access (TDMA) to synchronize devices in the
network.
•Security: WirelessHART uses 128-bit AES encryption, data
integrity, and device authentication.
•Reliability: WirelessHART uses frequency-hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) and direct-sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS) to ensure reliability.
•Data rate: WirelessHART can reach a data rate of 250 kb/s.
Z-Wave
Z-Wave is a wireless communication protocol
specifically designed for smart home
automation and IoT (Internet of Things)
devices. It operates as a low-power, low-
data-rate communication technology ideal
for devices such as lights, thermostats,
door locks, sensors, and other home
automation products. Z-Wave is known for its
reliability, interoperability, and easy
setup, making it one of the most widely
adopted protocols in smart home applications
Key Features of Z-Wave
 Mesh Networking:
 Z-Wave uses a mesh network topology, where each device (node) can act as a repeater
for other devices. This increases the range and reliability of the network, as messages can
be relayed through multiple devices to reach their destination.
 In a Z-Wave mesh network, the more devices there are, the more robust the network
becomes, as communication can hop between multiple nodes.
 Low Power Consumption:
 Z-Wave is optimized for battery-powered devices, allowing devices like sensors and
smart locks to operate for extended periods (years) on a single battery.
 This makes it ideal for smart home devices that require long-lasting operation without
frequent maintenance.
 Frequency Band:
 Z-Wave operates in the sub-GHz frequency band (usually around 900 MHz, depending
on the region). This lower frequency band allows for better range and penetration
through walls and other obstacles compared to higher-frequency protocols like Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.
 By operating in the sub-GHz band, Z-Wave also experiences less interference from
common devices like Wi-Fi routers, Bluetooth devices, and microwaves that use the 2.4
GHz band.
 Range:
 Z-Wave devices have a typical communication range of up to 100 meters (328 feet) in
open air, with a reduced range indoors due to walls and other obstacles.
 In a mesh network, this range can be extended by hopping through multiple devices,
allowing communication between devices located far apart.
 Interoperability:
 Z-Wave is designed to be backward-compatible and interoperable across
devices from different manufacturers as long as they are Z-Wave certified.
 This means that a user can integrate devices from various brands into the
same Z-Wave network, provided they follow the Z-Wave protocol.
 Security:
 Z-Wave includes built-in security features such as AES-128 encryption,
ensuring secure communication between devices. This is especially
important for smart home devices like door locks and security systems,
where privacy and security are critical.
 Controller-Based Architecture:
 A Z-Wave network typically revolves around a central controller (e.g., a
smart home hub). This controller manages the network and facilitates
communication between Z-Wave devices.
 Devices like light switches, motion sensors, or thermostats can be
controlled via the hub, which can also connect to other smart home
ecosystems like Amazon Alexa or Google Assistant for voice control.
 Limited Device Count:
 Z-Wave networks can support up to 232 devices, which is sufficient for
most residential and small commercial applications. However, larger
installations may require multiple controllers or hubs.
Z-Wave in Smart Home and IoT
 Z-Wave is predominantly used in smart home automation but has also found applications
in broader IoT (Internet of Things) use cases. Some common examples of its use include:
1. Smart Lighting:
1. Z-Wave is often used in smart lighting systems, where users can control lights remotely
through apps or voice assistants. Devices like smart light switches, dimmers, and plugs are
popular Z-Wave products.
2. Smart Locks and Security:
1. Z-Wave-enabled smart locks, door/window sensors, motion detectors, and security
cameras provide enhanced home security. These devices can communicate with the central
controller or hub to send alerts, trigger automation routines, and integrate with other smart
home systems.
3. Climate Control:
1. Z-Wave is widely used in smart thermostats and temperature sensors, allowing users to
control heating and cooling systems. These systems can be programmed or controlled remotely,
helping to optimize energy use and improve comfort.
4. Home Monitoring:
1. Devices such as water leak sensors, smoke detectors, and carbon monoxide detectors
use Z-Wave to notify homeowners of potential issues, offering real-time monitoring and safety
features.
5. Energy Management:
1. Z-Wave can be integrated into smart plugs and power meters, allowing users to monitor and
manage the energy consumption of various appliances and devices in their home. This helps
reduce power usage and manage energy efficiency.
6. Automation and Scheduling:
1. Z-Wave devices can be programmed to operate on schedules or be triggered by specific
conditions. For example, lights can turn on when motion is detected, or the thermostat can
adjust itself based on occupancy.
 Advantages of Z-Wave
1. Reliability: Z-Wave’s mesh networking and sub-GHz operation ensure stable, reliable
communication even in environments with many physical obstructions.
2. Low Interference: Operating in the 900 MHz band helps avoid interference from Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and other common household wireless devices.
3. Ease of Setup: Z-Wave devices are typically easy to set up and configure, especially
with modern smart home hubs and apps.
4. Interoperability: The backward compatibility and cross-manufacturer support make Z-
Wave networks very flexible for consumers, allowing them to mix and match devices from
different brands.
5. Low Power: Designed to support battery-powered sensors and devices with low data
rates, Z-Wave is efficient for use in devices that need to run for extended periods without
maintenance.
6. Wide Adoption: Z-Wave is widely adopted in the smart home industry, with thousands of
certified devices available, making it a mature and reliable choice for home automation.

 Limitations of Z-Wave
1. Limited Data Rate: Z-Wave is optimized for low-bandwidth applications. With a data rate
of up to 100 kbps, it is not suited for applications requiring high throughput (like video
streaming).
2. Range: Although the mesh network extends the range, individual Z-Wave devices have a
limited direct range, which can be an issue in very large homes or outdoor installations.
3. Controller Dependency: Z-Wave networks rely on a central controller (smart hub), which
means if the controller fails, the network may experience issues until it is restored.
4. Device Limit: A single Z-Wave network is limited to 232 devices, which can be a
drawback in large, commercial installations requiring a larger number of devices.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE),
It is also known as Bluetooth Smart, is a
wireless communication protocol designed for
applications that require low power consumption
and can tolerate lower data rates. BLE is part of
the Bluetooth 4.0 core specification and has
become widely used in various IoT (Internet of
Things) applications, including smart home
devices, wearables, health and fitness trackers,
beacons, and industrial applications. BLE is
optimized for infrequent data transmissions,
making it ideal for devices that need to run on
small batteries for extended periods.
Key Features of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
1. Low Power Consumption:
1. BLE is designed to consume significantly less power than Classic Bluetooth. It operates in sleep
mode most of the time, only waking up to transmit or receive data.
2. This allows BLE devices to run for months or even years on a coin-cell battery, making it ideal for
devices like fitness trackers, smartwatches, and medical sensors.
2. Frequency Band:
1. BLE operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band, which is shared with
other wireless technologies like Wi-Fi, Zigbee, and Classic Bluetooth.
2. It uses frequency hopping to minimize interference, dividing the frequency band into 40 channels
(each 2 MHz wide) to communicate.
3. Low Data Rate:
1. BLE supports a data rate of up to 2 Mbps (starting with Bluetooth 5.0), with earlier versions
supporting 1 Mbps. This is lower than Classic Bluetooth, but it's sufficient for applications requiring
small, periodic data transmissions, like sensor readings.
2. BLE is not suitable for high-bandwidth applications such as audio streaming.
4. Advertising and Broadcasting:
1. BLE devices periodically broadcast small packets of data, known as advertising packets, which
other devices can detect and connect to. This allows devices like beacons to send information about
their presence without needing a connection.
2. These advertising packets are often used for location-based services, device discovery, and initial
pairing between BLE devices.
5. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Communication:
1. BLE supports both connection-oriented and connectionless communication modes. In
connectionless mode, devices can broadcast data without establishing a persistent connection, while
in connection-oriented mode, a device creates a more stable link for ongoing communication.
2. Connectionless mode is useful for beacons, while connection-oriented communication is used for
devices that need to exchange more complex data.
1. GATT Protocol (Generic Attribute Profile):
1. BLE uses the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) for exchanging data between
devices. GATT defines how data is structured and transmitted in the form of
characteristics and services.
2. Services are a collection of related characteristics, which represent specific
functionalities. For example, a heart rate monitor might have a service that
includes characteristics for heart rate measurement and sensor location.
2. Security:
1. BLE provides several security mechanisms, including AES-128 encryption,
authentication, and pairing modes (Just Works, Numeric Comparison, Passkey
Entry) to protect data exchanges between devices.
2. Starting with Bluetooth 4.2, BLE introduced features like LE Secure
Connections to improve security and protect against potential vulnerabilities like
eavesdropping.
3. Range:
1. BLE has a typical range of about 10-100 meters, depending on the environment
and the specific use case. With Bluetooth 5.0, the range can be extended to up
to 400 meters in open space using LE Long Range mode, which is beneficial for
IoT applications.
4. Backward Compatibility:
1. BLE is designed to coexist with Classic Bluetooth in dual-mode devices,
meaning a single device can support both BLE and Classic Bluetooth, allowing for
backward compatibility with older Bluetooth devices while still benefiting from
BLE’s low power consumption.
BLE in IoT Applications

• Asset tracking
• BLE beacons can last up to three years, making them ideal for tracking
construction equipment.
• Smart devices
• BLE is useful for small, battery-powered smart devices. For example, the
GET smart bracelet uses BLE to connect to a smartphone and allow
remote control with gestures.
• Home automation
• BLE is a high-speed, low-power wireless communication technology that
can be used to connect phones and other portable devices.
• IoT applications
• BLE is well-suited for IoT applications.
• Development tools
• The nRF Sniffer for Bluetooth LE provides a near real-time display of
Bluetooth LE packets, which can help identify and fix issues during
development.
 Advantages of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
1. Energy Efficiency: BLE's ability to operate in sleep mode for most of the time
makes it highly efficient for battery-powered devices.
2. Global Standard: BLE is a widely adopted global standard, ensuring that devices
from different manufacturers can interoperate.
3. Security: BLE offers robust security with AES-128 encryption and secure pairing
methods, making it suitable for applications where security is essential (e.g., health
devices, smart locks).
4. Range Flexibility: With Bluetooth 5.0 and later versions, BLE offers improved
range options, from short-range low-latency to long-range low-power
communication.
5. Backward Compatibility: BLE can coexist with Classic Bluetooth in dual-mode
devices, enabling compatibility with a wide range of existing Bluetooth-enabled
devices.

 Limitations of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

 BLE has some limitations, including:
• It can't be used for higher data rates than wifi and cellular technologies.
• It can't be used for long distance wireless communications.
• It supports up to 200 meters in Line of Sight (LOS)

1. Limited Data Rate: BLE’s relatively low data rate makes it unsuitable for high-
bandwidth applications, such as audio or video streaming.
2. Interference: Operating in the 2.4 GHz band, BLE may face interference from
other devices like Wi-Fi, microwaves, and Classic Bluetooth.
3. Latency in Some Use Cases: Although BLE is designed for low-latency
communication, it may not be ideal for real-time applications requiring consistent,
ZIGBEE SMART ENERGY
Zigbee Smart Energy (SE) is a global, open
standard that uses ZigBee wireless networks
to monitor, control, and automate the use of
energy and water in the Internet of Things
(IoT):
Key Features of Zigbee Smart Energy
 Key Features of Zigbee Smart Energy
 Low Power Consumption:
 Like other Zigbee standards, Zigbee Smart Energy is optimized for low power usage, making it ideal for
battery-powered devices such as energy meters, in-home displays, and thermostats.
 This enables devices to operate for extended periods without frequent maintenance or battery changes,
which is crucial for energy monitoring systems deployed in residential and commercial environments.
 Interoperability:
 Zigbee Smart Energy ensures that devices from different manufacturers can work together
seamlessly. It is a vendor-neutral solution, enabling interoperability across a variety of energy
management and home automation devices.
 This interoperability is critical for large-scale deployment in smart grids, where devices from different
vendors need to communicate and coordinate efficiently.
 2.4 GHz Frequency Band:
 Zigbee Smart Energy operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, the same frequency band used by Zigbee
Home Automation and other wireless technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
 It also supports sub-GHz frequencies (868 MHz in Europe and 915 MHz in the U.S.) for improved
range and reduced interference in smart grid and utility applications.
 Mesh Networking:
 Zigbee Smart Energy uses a mesh network topology, where devices can communicate with each other
directly or through intermediate nodes (hops). This allows for greater network coverage and reliability,
especially in large buildings or neighborhoods where devices are spread over wide areas.
 In a Zigbee mesh network, the more devices there are, the stronger and more resilient the network
becomes, as devices can relay messages to each other.
 Security:
 Security is a core focus of Zigbee Smart Energy, which provides 128-bit AES encryption, mutual
authentication, and key management. This ensures that communication between devices is secure
and protected against eavesdropping or tampering.
 The protocol also includes secure key distribution and device pairing to ensure that only authorized
devices can join the network.
 Smart Energy Profile 2.0 (SEP 2.0):
 Smart Energy Profile 2.0 (SEP 2.0) is a key update to the Zigbee Smart Energy standard,
extending it to support IP-based communication over IPv6. This allows for broader
interoperability with internet-connected devices and integration with smart grid systems.
 SEP 2.0 also enhances the protocol’s capabilities for smart meter communication, demand
response, and load management, ensuring more efficient energy usage and control in homes
and businesses.
 Demand Response and Load Control:
 Zigbee Smart Energy supports demand response functionality, which allows utilities to
manage and adjust the energy consumption of connected devices during periods of peak
demand.
 Utilities can remotely control devices like thermostats, smart appliances, and water heaters to
reduce load on the grid during high-demand times, helping to prevent blackouts and reduce
energy costs.
 Energy Monitoring and Management:
 Zigbee Smart Energy is widely used in smart meters to enable two-way communication
between utilities and consumers. Consumers can monitor their energy usage in real-time and
make informed decisions to reduce consumption.
 The system can also be used to control energy-consuming devices based on usage patterns,
price signals, or grid conditions, providing consumers with detailed insights into their energy
consumption.
 Scalability:
 Zigbee Smart Energy networks can scale from small home installations to large commercial or
industrial deployments. The mesh network architecture ensures that as more devices are added,
the network becomes more robust, making it ideal for large-scale energy management
applications.
 Cost-Effective:
 Zigbee Smart Energy is designed to be a cost-effective solution for smart grid and
energy management applications. It leverages the low-cost Zigbee hardware, making it
accessible for a wide range of consumers and utilities.
 Advantages of Zigbee Smart Energy
1. Energy Efficiency: Optimized for low-power consumption, making it
ideal for battery-powered devices in smart grids and energy
management.
2. Scalability: Zigbee Smart Energy supports thousands of devices in a
single network, making it suitable for large deployments in smart grids
and energy management systems.
3. Security: Provides robust security features, including encryption and
secure key exchange, to ensure the integrity of communications
between devices.
4. Interoperability: Zigbee Smart Energy ensures seamless
communication between devices from different manufacturers,
promoting widespread adoption.
5. Mesh Networking: The mesh topology enhances reliability and range,
ensuring that devices can communicate even in large, complex
environments.

 Limitations of Zigbee Smart Energy

1. Data Rate: With a maximum data rate of 250 kbps, Zigbee Smart
Energy is not suitable for high-bandwidth applications like video
streaming.
2. Interference: Operating in the 2.4 GHz band can lead to interference
with other devices using the same frequency, like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
DASH7
DASH7 is a low-power, long-range wireless
communication protocol designed for
applications in the Internet of Things (IoT) that
require efficient, reliable, and scalable
communication. It operates in the sub-GHz
frequency range and is particularly suited for
applications involving asset tracking, smart
cities, industrial automation, and sensor
networks.
DASH7 Alliance Protocol (D7A) is an open-source
wireless protocol for sensor and actuator networks
in the Internet of Things (IoT).
DASH7 Architecture
Key Features of DASH7
1. Sub-GHz Frequency Band:
1. DASH7 operates in the 433 MHz, 868 MHz (Europe), and 915 MHz (North America) frequency bands.
These sub-GHz frequencies provide better penetration through obstacles (walls, buildings) and greater
range compared to 2.4 GHz technologies like Wi-Fi or Zigbee.
2. Sub-GHz communication also experiences less interference compared to the crowded 2.4 GHz band,
which is widely used by other technologies.
2. Long Range:
1. DASH7 is designed to offer long-range communication up to 2 kilometers (1.2 miles) in open
environments, depending on the power settings and environmental conditions. This makes it ideal for
outdoor and wide-area applications such as smart agriculture or asset tracking in logistics.
2. Even in urban environments, DASH7 provides reliable communication over several hundred meters.
3. Low Power Consumption:
1. DASH7 is optimized for low-power, infrequent communications. It uses wake-up on-demand
mechanisms, meaning devices can stay in deep sleep mode most of the time and only wake up when
needed to send or receive data.
2. Devices can run for years on a small battery, making it well-suited for battery-powered or energy-
harvesting IoT devices, such as sensors or tracking devices.
4. Bi-Directional Communication:
1. Unlike some other long-range wireless protocols like LoRaWAN, DASH7 supports bi-directional
communication, meaning that devices can both transmit and receive messages.
2. This is useful in scenarios where two-way communication is needed, such as sending commands to
control devices (e.g., switching lights on/off or configuring sensors remotely).
5. Wake-Up On-Demand (WoD):
1. DASH7 uses a unique wake-up on-demand communication model. Devices can stay in a sleep state until
they receive a wake-up call, minimizing power consumption.
2. This makes DASH7 particularly efficient in use cases where devices only need to communicate
intermittently, such as monitoring the condition of assets or environmental sensors that only report
changes in state.
6. Low Latency:
1. DASH7 offers low latency communication (in the range of milliseconds), making it suitable for real-time
applications or systems where quick responses are necessary, such as industrial control or smart city
lighting control.
2. Low latency is achieved through the asynchronous nature of the network, where devices can wake up
1. Mesh and Star Topologies:
1. DASH7 can be deployed in star, peer-to-peer, or mesh network topologies,
providing flexibility for various applications.
2. In a star topology, devices communicate directly with a gateway. In mesh
networking, devices can communicate with each other and relay data to extend
the network's range.
2. Data Rates:
1. DASH7 supports data rates up to 167 kbps, which, although lower than some
short-range wireless protocols, is sufficient for small, periodic data
transmissions typically used in sensor networks or monitoring applications.
2. This data rate is ideal for applications requiring infrequent transmission of small
data packets, such as temperature readings or GPS coordinates.
3. Channel Hopping and Interference Mitigation:
1. DASH7 employs channel hopping techniques to minimize interference and
ensure reliable communication in noisy environments. Devices can switch
frequencies if interference is detected, helping to maintain a stable connection.
4. Global Compliance:
1. DASH7 is designed to be compliant with global regulatory standards, including
FCC, ETSI, and ISO/IEC standards, making it easy to deploy in different regions
without major changes to hardware or software.
5. Security:
1. DASH7 supports 128-bit AES encryption for secure communication, ensuring
that data transmitted over the network is protected from eavesdropping and
tampering.
2. This makes DASH7 a good choice for applications where security is critical, such
as smart metering or industrial control systems.
 Advantages of DASH7
1. Long Range: Provides long-range communication (up to 2 km in open
environments), ideal for wide-area applications like agriculture and
logistics.
2. Low Power Consumption: Optimized for energy efficiency, allowing
devices to operate for extended periods (years) on small batteries.
3. Low Latency: Offers low-latency communication, making it suitable for
real-time applications like industrial control or smart lighting.
4. Flexible Topology: Supports multiple network topologies (star, mesh,
peer-to-peer), allowing it to adapt to various deployment needs.
5. Security: Provides AES-128 encryption, ensuring secure data transmission
across the network.
6. Interference Mitigation: Uses channel hopping and operates in the sub-
GHz band, reducing interference and improving communication reliability.

 Limitations of DASH7
1. Lower Data Rate: The maximum data rate of 167 kbps is lower than that
of other protocols like Wi-Fi or even Zigbee, limiting its use in applications
requiring high-bandwidth data transfers.
2. Limited Adoption: While DASH7 is gaining traction in specific industries
like logistics and industrial IoT, it is less widely adopted compared to other
IoT standards such as LoRa, Sigfox, or Zigbee.
3. Network Complexity: The mesh topology and on-demand communication
model can add complexity to network management and require more
DASH7 in IoT Applications
1. Asset Tracking:
1. One of the main use cases for DASH7 is asset tracking in logistics, manufacturing, and supply chain
industries. By attaching DASH7-enabled tags to items, companies can track the location and condition of
their assets in real-time over long distances.
2. These tags can transmit data only when queried, saving energy and extending battery life.
2. Smart Cities:
1. DASH7 is suitable for smart city applications like smart lighting, waste management, and
environmental monitoring. The long-range capability allows municipalities to deploy sensor networks
that can cover large areas with fewer gateways, reducing infrastructure costs.
2. For example, sensors monitoring air quality or traffic conditions can report data periodically to a central
system using DASH7.
3. Agriculture:
1. In smart agriculture, DASH7 can be used to monitor conditions such as soil moisture, temperature, and
crop health over large fields or remote areas where cellular or Wi-Fi connectivity may not be available.
2. Its low-power consumption allows sensors to operate for extended periods without requiring frequent
maintenance.
4. Industrial IoT (IIoT):
1. DASH7 is widely used in industrial automation and machine-to-machine (M2M) communication. It can
help monitor equipment, track production progress, or manage inventory in large facilities like factories or
warehouses.
2. The low-latency communication is especially beneficial in time-sensitive operations such as process control.
5. Logistics and Supply Chain:
1. DASH7 is an effective solution for supply chain management. Tagged items in warehouses, shipping
containers, or delivery vehicles can be monitored and tracked as they move through different stages of the
supply chain, ensuring efficient inventory management and reducing losses.
6. Smart Metering:
1. Smart energy meters using DASH7 can report usage data to utilities at regular intervals. Utilities can also
remotely configure or read meters without requiring on-site visits, optimizing the energy distribution
network.
7. Environmental Monitoring:
1. DASH7 is ideal for deploying environmental sensors in remote or outdoor locations to monitor conditions
such as weather, air quality, or water levels. These sensors can remain in place for long periods,
transmitting data only when necessary to conserve energy.
IOT NETWORL LAYER
PROTOCOL
IOT NETWORL LAYER PROTOCOL
IPv4,
IPv6,
 6LoWPAN,
6TiSCH,
ND,
DHCP,
 ICMP,
RPL,
CORPL,
CARP 08
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol,
which is used to identify devices on a network through an addressing system.
It is one of the core protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the
Internet and other packet-switched networks.
Despite the introduction of IPv6 to address the growing limitations of IPv4,
it remains the most widely used protocol for routing traffic across the Internet.
Key Characteristics of IPv4

1.Addressing System :
•IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers,
•typically written in dotted decimal format.
• An IPv4 address consists of four octets (each containing 8 bits)
• separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
•Each octet can range from 0 to 255, providing a
•theoretical address space of approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
2.Classes of IPv4 Addresses:
•IPv4 addresses are divided into different classes based on their leading
bits. This system, known as classful networking, helps determine the size
of the network portion and host portion of the address.
•The main classes are:
•Class A: For very large networks, with an address range from 1.0.0.0
to 126.255.255.255.
•Class B: For medium-sized networks, with an address range from
128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
•Class C: For smaller networks, with an address range from
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
•Class D: Reserved for multicasting (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255).
•Class E: Reserved for experimental purposes (240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255).
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth
version of the standard that routes Internet
traffic and other packet-switched networks
introduced in 1982 by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
IPv4 Address Format
IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises
binary digits separated by a dot (.).
IPV4 HEADER FORMAT
Advantages of IPv4:
•Simplicity and Ubiquity:
•IPv4 has been the backbone of the internet since its inception, making
•it widely understood, supported, and compatible with most networking
hardware and
• software. This long history of use simplifies network setup and
maintenance.
•Compatibility:
•IPv4 is compatible with almost all devices and networks, which makes it
easier
• for organizations to set up and manage without specialized
configurations or additional resources.
•Simple Addressing Scheme:
•The IPv4 addressing scheme, using dotted-decimal notation
(e.g., 192.168.0.1), is relatively easy for people to read
and understand, making network administration
simpler.
•Efficient Routing and Subnetting:
•IPv4 supports classless inter-domain routing (CIDR) and subnetting, allowing
•for efficient use of IP addresses and network segmentation, which improves traffic
•management and security.

•Large-Scale NAT (Network Address Translation) Support:

•The limited IPv4 address space led to the development of NAT, which enables
•multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address. NAT
•remains useful for private networks, providing an additional layer of security.
Disadvantages of IPv4:
•Address Space Exhaustion:
•With a 32-bit address space, IPv4 can only provide around 4.3 billion
•unique addresses, many of which have already been assigned.
•This limitation has led to a scarcity of public IPv4 addresses, requiring
•costly allocation and creative workarounds like NAT.
•Complex NAT Requirements:
•While NAT solves address space issues to an extent, it can complicate
•network management and impact performance, particularly for real-time applications
• like VoIP and online gaming.
•Limited Features for Modern Needs:
•IPv4 lacks native support for encryption and other modern security features,
•such as IPsec, which are more readily available in IPv6. This can result in
•additional security configuration requirements for IPv4 networks.
•Inefficient Packet Head er Structure:
•IPv4's header is less efficient than IPv6's, with more fields that add complexity
•and processing requirements for routers. This inefficiency impacts network
•performance, particularly in large and complex networks.
•Fragmentation of Address Space:
•Due to extensive use of NAT and other allocation schemes, IPv4 networks
•have fragmented, making routing more complex and reducing the ability to scale
• seamlessly.
IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the
Internet Protocol (IP),
which is a communications protocol that identifies and locates devices
on networks and routes traffic:
•Address space: IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing, which
can support 340 trillion addresses, more than enough
for every networked device in the world. This is a significant increase
from IPv4, which uses 32-bit addressing.
•Security: IPv6 provides additional security.
•Routing: IPv6 improves addressing and routing of network traffic.
•Services: IPv6 makes it easier to implement services like peer-to-peer
(P2P) networks, voice over IP (VoIP), and stronger security.
•Packet processing: IPv6 simplifies packet processing with more
streamlined packet headers.
•Multicast packet flows: IPv6 supports multicast packet flows.
•Network address translation: IPv6 eliminates the need for network
address translation (NAT).
Advantages
•Larger address space: IPv6 has a significantly larger
address space
• than IPv4, with 340 undecillion addresses.
•This allows for more devices to connect to the network.
•Improved routing: IPv6 uses hierarchical addressing to
streamline
• routing,
•making it more efficient.
•Integrated security: IPv6 has built-in security features like
IPsec to improve
•data transmission security.
•Supports multicast packet flows: IPv6 supports multicast
packet flows.
•Simplified packet processing: IPv6 has more streamlined
packet headers,
•which simplifies packet processing.
•Eliminates the need for network address translation
Disadvantages
•Complex implementation: IPv6 can be complex to
implement,
•especially when transitioning from IPv4.
•More difficult to recall addresses: IPv6 addresses
are more intricate
•and difficult to recall than IPv4 addresses.
•Financial implications: Upgrading infrastructure to
support IPv6
•and IPv4 protocols can be financially expensive.
•Network security concerns: There are concerns
about network
•security when transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6.
6LoWPAN
6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless
Personal Area Networks)
is a networking technology that allows devices
with limited processing power to connect to the internet and participate
in the
Internet of Things (IoT):
•How it works
6LoWPAN uses IPv6 packets, which are carried efficiently within small link
layer frames.
The 6LoWPAN layer compresses headers,
fragments, and forwards layers to adapt IPv6 packets to LoWPAN
networks.
•Applications
6LoWPAN is used in applications such as smart grids, industrial
monitoring, and home and
office automation
Benefits or advantages of
6LoWPAN
 Following are the benefits or advantages of 6LoWPAN:
➨6LoWPAN is a mesh network which is robust, scalable and self
healing.
➨It offers long range of communication which detects signals
belownoiselevel.
➨It consumes less power as it uses reduced transmission time
(using short time pulses). Hence this saves energy and consecutively
battery can be used for very long duration.
➨It offers large network which can be used by millions of devices.
➨It delivers low cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
➨It offers one to many and many to one routing. Hence transparent
internet integration is possible.
➨It uses IPv6 protocol and hence can be routed directly to cloud
platforms.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of 6LoWPAN

Following are the drawbacks or disadvantages

of 6LoWPAN:
➨It is less secure than zigbee.
➨It has less immunity to interference than wifi or
bluetoothdevices.
➨It supports short range without mesh topology.
6TiSCH
6TiSCH (IPv6 over Time Slotted Channel Hopping)
is a network that enables low-power IPv6 networks
for the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). It's
designed to provide reliable, delay-bounded,
and energy-efficient communication in
resource-constrained networks.
6TiSCH proposes a protocol stack rooted in
the Time Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) mode
of the IEEE802. 15.4-2015 standard , supports multi-
hop topologies with the IPv6 Routing Protocol for
Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) routing
protocol, and is IPv6-ready through 6LoWPAN.
WSN-WIRELESS SENSOR
Here are some characteristics
of 6TiSCH:
•Protocol stack
6TiSCH is based on the IEEE 802.15.4-2015 standard's Time
Slotted Channel Hopping
(TSCH) mode.
•Multi-hop topologies
6TiSCH supports multi-hop topologies using the IPv6 Routing
Protocol for Low-Power
and Lossy Networks (RPL).
•Secure join
6TiSCH has a secure lightweight join process that combines
link-layer security features with the
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP).
•Improved IPv6
6TiSCH has improved many problems associated with bringing
IPv6 to low capacity devices, such as
IP-in-IP encapsulation, 6LoWPAN Neighbor Discovery, and
header compression.
challenges
Some challenges with 6TiSCH networks include:
•Node queue/buffer management
Improper management of nodes' queue/buffer
can degrade
network performance.
•New nodes joining
New nodes, also known as pledges, take more
time to
join the network, which can lead to inefficient
data
transmission and significant energy
consumption
ND
Note: ND stands for Neighbor Discovery, a process
that helps network nodes (devices) find and
maintain routes to other devices in the network.
6TiSCH ND is a node with 6LoWPAN ND that is
carried over RPL to the RPL root,(RPL-routing
protocol for low power and lossy network) and
then to the 6BBR(Backbone router).
 6TiSCH stands for IPv6 over the Time Slotted
Channel Hopping (TSCH) mode of IEEE 802.15.4e. It
is an IETF Working Group that has standardized
protocols for low power industrial-grade IPv6
networks
 Here are some things to know about 6TiSCH:
• Purpose
• 6TiSCH is designed to provide reliable and delay-bounded
communication in multi-hop and scalable Industrial Internet of
Things (IIoT).
• Protocols
• 6TiSCH uses the IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy
Networks (RPL) routing protocol and is IPv6-ready through 6LoWPAN.
• Node communication
• Nodes in a 6TiSCH network communicate by following a Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) schedule.
• Join process
• 6TiSCH has a secure lightweight join process that combines link-
layer security features with a secure joining procedure using the
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP).
• Challenges
• 6TiSCH networks can suffer from load balancing issues and improper
management of nodes' queue/buffer.
Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network
protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses and
other network configuration parameters to devices on a
network:
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a system for assigning
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to each network device (known as a host) on
an organization's network. A host may be a desktop computer, a laptop, a
tablet, a mobile device, a thin client, or other types of devices.
•IP addresses
DHCP assigns IP addresses to each device on a network, such as a
desktop computer, laptop, tablet, or mobile device.
•Other configuration parameters
DHCP also assigns other configuration parameters, such as Domain
Name System (DNS) addresses, subnet masks, and default gateways.
•Automatic assignment
DHCP automatically assigns IP addresses and other configuration
parameters, eliminating the need for manual configuration by
network administrators.
•.
•Automatic reassignment
DHCP also automatically reassigns IP addresses when devices move to
new locations on the network.
DHCP is used on TCP/IP networks and can be implemented on networks
of various sizes, from residential networks to large campus
networks. DHCP is an enhancement of an older protocol called BOOTP.
DHCP has some drawbacks, including:
•Security
DHCP servers can't authenticate clients, so clients can gain access to
unauthorized IP addresses.
•Single point of failure
If a network has only one DHCP server and it fails, clients can't access
the web.
•No static IP
Computers connected to a network with DHCP can't be used as servers
because their IP address is always changing
Advantages

• Centralized management of IP addresses.

• Centralized and automated TCP/IP configuration .
• Ease of adding new clients to a network.
• Reuse of IP addresses reduces the total number of IP addresses
that are required.
• The efficient handling of IP address changes for clients that
must be updated frequently, such as those for portable devices
that move to different locations on a wireless network.
• Simple reconfiguration of the IP address space on the DHCP
server without needing to reconfigure each client.
• The DHCP protocol gives the network administrator a method
to configure the network from a centralized area.
• With the help of DHCP, easy handling of new users and the
reuse of IP addresses can be achieved.
Disadvantages

• IP conflict can occur.

• The problem with DHCP is that clients accept
any server. Accordingly, when another server
is in the vicinity, the client may connect with
this server, and this server may possibly send
invalid data to the client.
• The client is not able to access the network in
absence of a DHCP Server.
• The name of the machine will not be changed
in a case when a new IP Address is assigned.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Control Message Protocol is known as ICMP.

The protocol is at the network layer. It is mostly utilized
on network equipment like routers and is utilized for
error handling at the network layer. Since there are
various kinds of network layer faults, ICMP can be
utilized to report and troubleshoot these errors.
Since IP does not have an inbuilt mechanism for
sending error and control messages. It depends on
Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to
provide error control. In this article, we are going to
discuss ICMP in detail along with their uses, messages,
etc.
 What is ICMP?
 ICMP is used for reporting errors and management queries. It is a
supporting protocol and is used by network devices like routers for
sending error messages and operations information. For example, the
requested service is not available or a host or router could not be reached.
 Since the IP protocol lacks an error-reporting or error-correcting
mechanism, information is communicated via a message. For instance,
when a message is sent to its intended recipient, it may be intercepted
along the route from the sender.

 The sender may believe that the communication has reached its destination
if no one reports the problem. If a middleman reports the mistake, ICMP
helps in notifying the sender about the issue. For example, if a message
can’t reach its destination, if there’s network congestion, or if packets are
lost, ICMP sends back feedback about these issues. This feedback is
essential for diagnosing and fixing network problems, making sure that
communication can be adjusted or rerouted to keep everything
running smoothly.
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) has several
advantages and disadvantages, including:
•Advantages
•Network diagnostics: ICMP is used by network
monitoring tools like ping and traceroute to diagnose
connectivity
•issues and measure round-trip times.
•Error reporting: ICMP sends status updates and
error reports, such as timeouts, unreachable
destinations, and fragmentation issues.
•Low overhead: ICMP messages are typically short
and simple, requiring low overhead and limited
bandwidth.
•Optimizes network management: ICMP helps
with troubleshooting and optimizing network
performance and management by enabling devices
to communicate status and error messages.
Disadvantages
•Network traffic: Sending a lot of ICMP packets
increases network
•traffic.
•Device performance: A device's performance
degrades if it receives
•a lot of malicious packets that
•cause it to respond with ICMP error packets.
•DDoS attacks: ICMP can be abused in DDoS attacks.
•ICMP filters: There can be issues with ICMP filters.
RPL - IPv6 Routing protocol

RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low Power and

Lossy Networks. It is an IPv6 routing protocol that is
standardized for the Internet of Things (IoT) by the
Internet-Engineering Task Force (IETF).
RPL is a proactive protocol that is optimized for multi-
hop and many-to-one communication. It can support
a wide variety of link layers, including those with
limitations, with potential losses or that are used in
devices with limited resources.
RPL is used by the IoT to offer seamless information
transfer among the myriad of interconnected entities
 RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low Power and
Lossy Networks for heterogeneous traffic networks. It is a
routing protocol for Wireless Networks. This protocol is based
on the same standard as by Zigbee and 6 Lowpan is IEEE
802.15.4 It holds both many-to-one and one-to-one
communication.
 It is a Distance Vector Routing Protocol that creates a
tree-like routing topology called the Destination Oriented
Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG), rooted towards one or more
nodes called the root node or sink node.
 The Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) are created based on
user-specified specific Objective Function (OF). The OF
defines the method to find the best-optimized route among
the number of sensor devices.
Modes of RPL:
This protocol defines two modes:
 1. Storing mode

 All modes contain the entire routing table of the RPL domain. Every node
knows how to reach every other node directly.

 2. Non-Storing mode

 Only the border router(s) of the RPL domain contain(s) the full routing
table. All other nodes in the domain maintain their list of parents only and
use this as a list of default routes towards the border router. The
abbreviated routing table saves memory space and CPU. When
communicating in non-storing mode, a node always forwards its packet to
the border router, which knows how to ultimately reach the final
destination.
 RPL is based on the concept of a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG). A DAG is
Directed Graph where no cycle exists. This means that from any vertex or
point in the graph, we cannot follow an edge or a line back to this same
point. All of the edges are arranged in a path oriented toward and
terminating at one or more root nodes.
 A basic RPL process involves building a Destination Oriented
Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG).
 A DODAG is a DAG rooted in one destination. In RPL this
destination occurs at a border router known as the DODAG
root. In a DODAG, three parents maximum are maintained
by each node that provides a path to the root.
 Typically one of these parents is the preferred parent, which
means it is the preferred next hop for upward roots towards
the root.
 The routing graph created by the set of DODAG parents
across all nodes defines the full set of upwards roots. RPL
protocol information should ensure that routes are loop-free
by disallowing nodes from selected DODAG parents
positioned further away from a border router.
Main Features and Advantages of RPL
 The IPv6 Routing Protocol for RPL, is an efficient and effective protocol for data
routing in resource-constrained scenarios, such Internet of Things devices as per
requirement. Its many essential features include the below points:
• Scalability: The protocol can accommodate such type of big networks with low
power and lossy connectivity, which makes it appropriate for a range of Internet
of Things applications.

• Multipoint-to-point traffic generation: RPL offers a way to send data to a single

destination point from several devices within the LLN as per requirement.

• Quality of Service (QoS) – The protocol guarantees QoS by offering various types
of methods for reliable packet delivery system and congestion control systetm.

• Adaptive – RPL modifies the required routes in response to link quality and energy
availability changes in the network environment or system.

• Security system: To guarantee various types of secure communication within the

LLN as per requirement, RPL incorporates techniques for integrity protection,
authentication, confidentiality, and encryption for better performance.
Limitations
 The IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) has several limitations,
including:
• Lack of load balancing
• RPL lacks a load balancing mechanism for large traffic scenarios. This can lead to uneven
traffic distribution, which can cause congestion, packet loss, and increased delay.
• Parent selection
• RPL's parent selection process always uses the same parent when forwarding packets to
the root.
• Scalability
• RPL is not scalable and is inefficient for any-to-any communications.
• Topology building
• Building an efficient RPL topology with low failures and supporting different traffic patterns
is a challenge
CORPL
CORPL protocol is the extension of the RPL
protocol, which is termed as cognitive RPL. This
network protocol is designed for cognitive
networks and uses DODAG topology. CORPL
protocol makes two new modifications in the RPL
protocol. It uses opportunistic forwarding to
forward a packet between the nodes.
•Purpose
CORPL is designed to address routing challenges
in cognitive radio environments, protect primary
users, and meet the utility requirements of
secondary networks.
•Features
CORPL uses opportunistic forwarding to forward packets
by choosing multiple forwarders. Each node maintains a
forwarding set and
updates its neighbors with changes using DIO
messages.
•Performance
System-level evaluations show that CORPL can achieve
better performance than existing routing protocols for
cognitive radio-enabled AMI networks.
•Energy efficiency
CORPL focuses on meeting energy efficiency
requirements.
CORPL is an extension of the IPv6 routing protocol and
uses Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph
(DODAG). topology generation. It's a routing solution for
CARP
Common Address Redundancy Protocol
(CARP) is a network protocol that allows
multiple hosts on a local area network (LAN)
to share a set of IP addresses. CARP's main
purpose is to provide failover redundancy,
especially when used with routers and
firewalls
CARP works by allowing a group of hosts on
the same network segment to share an IP
address. This group of hosts is referred to as a
"redundancy group." The redundancy group is
assigned an IP address that is shared amongst
Here are some key features of CARP:
•Redundancy group: A group of hosts on the same
network segment that share an IP address.
•Master host: The host within the redundancy group
that currently holds the shared IP address. The master
host responds
• to any traffic or ARP requests directed towards that
address.
•Backup hosts: The hosts within the redundancy
group that act as backup services if the master host
can't do its job.
•Security: CARP protects packets with an SHA1 HMAC.
•Support: CARP supports IPv4 and IPv6
Limitations
 The Common Address Redundancy Protocol (CARP)
has a few limitations, including:
• Load balancing: CARP's load balancing capabilities
are limited to local network segments. It can't
balance traffic that crosses a router.
• Asymmetric routing: CARP can cause asymmetric
routing of incoming and outgoing traffic.
• Services that require a constant
connection: CARP can't transparently transfer
services that require a constant connection to the
server, such as SSH or IRC.
• Data synchronization: CARP doesn't synchronize
data between applications.
• Switch or layer 2 issues: CARP may fail to reflect
the expected status if there are issues with the
switch or other layer 2 issues.
• Unicast mode: Using unicast mode on traditional
infrastructure can lead to security and performance
concerns