Sampling Design

CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’
A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
It can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But, in practice this may not
be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger
as the number of observation increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt
because of the resources involved. At times, this method is practically beyond the
reach of ordinary researchers. Perhaps, government is the only institution which can
get the complete enumeration carried out. Even the government adopts this in very
rare cases such as population census conducted once in a decade. Further, many a
time it is not possible to examine every item in the population, and sometimes it is
possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total
population. In such cases there is no utility of census surveys.
 However, it needs to be emphasized that when the universe is a small one, it is
no use resorting to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e.,
selection of only a few items. The respondents selected should be as representative of the
total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. The selected
respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection process is
called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.
Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N) of this
population is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of the
population, the group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’. Researcher must
prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be selected
and of what size such a sample would be.

IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items
to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined
before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can
choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and
appropriate for his research study.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:

 Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set
of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe
the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of
items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific
radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
 Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
 Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list
is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
 Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample
should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability
and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the
desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of
population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance usually a
bigger sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits
the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view,
while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can
draw. As such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when
we decide the sample size.

 Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we
may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in
the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population. There may also be important sub-groups in the
population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact
upon the sample design we would accept.
 Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
 Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There
are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the
researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which,
for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling
analysis viz., the cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting
from the data. Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz.,
systematic bias and sampling error. A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling
procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best
the causes responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually a
systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:
 Systematic bias
• Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased
representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
• Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result
in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the
interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will
be systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring device.
• Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the
likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often
correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
• Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept
under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For
instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work
study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete a task will be
determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to
work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved. Thus,
the indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.
• Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of
data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a
downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation department,
whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social
organization. People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax
purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.
Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’
answer rather than revealing their true feelings.
 Sampling errors
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the
true population parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction, their nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value
of such errors happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in
the size of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population.
Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The
measurement of sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’. If we
increase the sample size, the precision can be improved. But increasing the size of the
sample has its own limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting
data and also enhances the systematic bias. Thus the effective way to increase precision is
usually to select a better sampling design which has a smaller sampling error for a given
sample size at a given cost. In practice, however, people prefer a less precise design
because it is easier to adopt the same and also because of the fact that systematic bias
can be controlled in a better way in such a design.

In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the
procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias
in a better way.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good
sample design as under:
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
• Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better
way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the
representation basis and the element selection technique.
On the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may
be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling.
On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted.
When each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the
sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are
covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’.
The following chart exhibits the sample designs as explained above.
CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS
Representation basis

Element selection Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

technique

Unrestricted sampling
Simple random sampling Haphazard sampling or
convenience sampling

Restricted sampling Complex random sampling (such Purposive sampling (such as

as cluster sampling, systematic quota sampling, judgement

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling and
sampling, stratified sampling etc.) sampling)

probability sampling. We take up these two designs separately.

 Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which

does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population
has of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different
names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In this
type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability
sampling the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out
of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
 For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied,
a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle
that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organizers
of the study plays an important part in this sampling design.

Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling
technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the necessary
experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis of
deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there
is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included.
Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great
or small, is always there. As such, this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of
importance. However, in small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be
adopted because of the relative advantage of time and money inherent in this method of
sampling. Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota
sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata,
with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of
the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very
convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not
possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially judgement
samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in a
formal way.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance
sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked
up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind
chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results
obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability i.e.,
we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a
random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity
which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have
the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random
sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative sample.
Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample
selection which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
picked up and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included
in the sample. This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected
for the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again.
In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:
• It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample;
and all choices are independent of one another.
• It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.
How to select a random sample from finite population ?
i. lottery Method:
ii. Random number tables:
lottery Method:
With regard to the question of how to take a random sample in actual practice, we
could write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips thoroughly in a
container and then draw as a lottery either blindfolded or by rotating a drum or by any other
similar device. Such a procedure is obviously impractical, if not altogether impossible in
complex problems of sampling. In fact, the practical utility of such a method is very much
limited.
Random number tables:
Even this relatively easy method of obtaining a random sample can be simplified
in actual practice by the use of random number tables. The random numbers are generally
obtained by some mechanism which, when repeated a large number of times, ensured
approximately equal frequencies for the number from 0 to 9 and also proper frequencies for
various combinations of numbers (such as 00,01,…………..99; 000, 001,………….999; etc) that
could be expected in a random sequence of the digits 0 to 9.

Several standard table of random numbers are available, among which the
following may be specially mentioned, as they have been tested extensively for randomness:
1. Tippett’s (1927) random number tables consisting of 41,600 random digits grouped into
10,400 sets of four –digit random numbers:
2. Fisher and Yates (1938) table of random numbers with 15,000 random digits arranged
into 1,500 sets of ten-digit random numbers:
3. Kendall and Babington Smith (1939) table of random numbers consisting of 1,00,000
random digits grouped into 25,000 sets of four-digit random numbers:
4. Rand Corporation (1955) table of random numbers consisting of 1,00,000 random digits
grouped into 20,000 sets of five-digit random numbers; and
5. C.R. Rao, Mitra and Mathai (1966) table of random numbers
Trippett’s table of random numbers is most popularly used in practice. We can illustrate
the procedure by an example. First of all we reproduce the first thirty sets of Tippett’s
numbers
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911

3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396

7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483

3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691

0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126

 Suppose we are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a population of
5000 units, bearing numbers from 3001 to 8000. We shall select 10 such figures from the
above random numbers which are not less than 3001 and not greater than 8000. If we
randomly decide to read the table numbers from left to right, starting from the first row
itself, we obtain the following numbers: 6641, 3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203,
5356, and 7483.
Merits.
1. Since the selection of items to the sample depends entirely on chance there
is no possibility of personal bias affecting the results.
2.Compared to judgment sampling a random sample represent the universe in a
better way. As the size of the sample increases, it become increasingly representative of
the population.
3. The analyst can easily assess the accuracy of the estimate because sampling
errors follow the principles of chance. The theory of random sampling is further
developed than that of any other type of sampling which enables the analyst to provide
the most reliable information at the least cost.
Limitations.
1. The use of simple random sampling necessitates a completely catalogued
universe from which draw the sample. But it is often difficult for the investigator to have
up-to-date list of all the items of the population to be sampled. This restricts the use of
this method in economic and business data where very often we have to employ
restricted random sampling designs.
2. The size of the sample required to ensure statistical reliability is usually larger under
random sampling than non-probability sampling.
3. From the point of view of field survey it has been claimed that cases selected by
random sampling tend to be too widely dispersed geographically and that the time and
cost of collecting data become too large.