INTRODUCTION TO LIDAR TECHNOLOGY

And
APPLICATIONS
Shiv Mohan

CEPT Professional Course: Winter School

UAV & Lidar based bridge condition assessment
9-12-2024
 Remote Sensing: Key concept

Definition of remote sensing

Remote sensing is the branch of science delivering information about
objects through the analysis of data collected by spectral instruments that
are not in physical contact with the objects of investigation.

The detection and

recording instruments
for this technology
are known as remote
sensors. The object
being monitored is
called target.
 WHAT are different type of remote sensing?
Classification of Remote sensing:
Based on spectral region:
Optical/IR remote sensing ( 0.4 to 8.0 micometer)
Thermal remote sensing ( 8 to 12 micrometer)
Microwave remote sensing ( .3 to 100 GHz)

The micrometre ( μm) also commonly known as a micron,

is unit of length equalling 1×10−6 metre
 Types of Remote Sensing
Classification of remote sensing based on radiation source:

1. Passive remote sensing 2. Active remote sensing

The sensor uses external source of illumination The sensor uses its own source of illumination
Introduction to GIS 4
 What are Type of Remote sensing:

IMAGE

IMAGE
POINT CLOUDS

Advantage: Ability of seeing object beyond human eyes limit

What is Lidar?

LIDAR: Acronym of Light Detection And Ranging

Active form of remote sensing:

information is obtained from a signal which is sent from a

transmitter, reflected by a target, and detected by a receiver
back at the source.
.

DATA: POINT CLOUDS

• Wavelength:
• infrared (1500 – 2000 nm) for meteorology –
• near-infrared (1040 - 1060 nm) for terrestrial mapping
• blue-green (500 – 600 nm) for bathymetry
• ultraviolet (250 nm) for meteorology
the measurement of depth of water
in oceans, seas, or lakes
LIDAR (Light or laser Detection and Ranging) is an optical
remote sensing technology

measures properties of scattered light to find range

and/or other information of a distant target
(i.e. collect topographical data)

measures precise time of transmitted pulse and

received pulse

Many names of LIDAR - Laser Altimetry, airborne laser

scanning, and airborne laser terrain mapping
Component of Lidar

1. Light source ( Lidar)

2. Scanner
3. High precision clock
4. GPS
5. Data storage &
measurement
Small footprint
•• beam
e.g. 0.1 mrad
high from
chance 1000 m giving
of penetrating holes inaafootprint
vegetation of around 10 cm at nadir
canopy
• to provide ground samples
• height measurement more easily associated with a single ‘object’
• rather than blurred over some area
• i.e. greater chance of hitting a ‘hard’ target.

1 rad= 57. 3 deg

,1 mrad=.1*(1/1000) *57.3
=.00573 degree.

D= diameter of aperture ( lense)

Constant velocity rotating mirror scanning
technique (El-Sheimy et al., 2005)
Discrete Return: Most common format, capturing
the first object the laser pulse encounters. Suitable
for basic terrain mapping and 3D modeling
Basis of LiDAR measurement

LIDAR measures time delay

Distance = speed x time
d1

•t=2d/c
d2

• h = d1- d2= (c/2) (t1- t2)

h

• c = 299.79 x106 m/s

• i.e. 4.35 ns flight time per m
Basis of LiDAR measurement

LIDAR measures time delay

Distance = speed x time
d1

•t=2d/c
d2

• h = d1- d2= (c/2) (t1- t2)

h

• c = 299.79 x106 m/s

• i.e. 4.35 ns flight time per m

BUILDING
•Multiple Return: Records all points the pulse
reflects, offering detailed information about
vegetation layers and complex structures.
•Point clouds
In 3D modeling, a point cloud is a set
of data points in a 3D coordinate
system—commonly known as the XYZ
axes.
Each point represents a single spatial
measurement on the object's surface.
Taken together, a point cloud
represents the entire external surface
of an object.
Tree Height

Canopy height model

LIDAR – Light Detection And Ranging

• Vegetation Structure

• Height vs. Width

• Shape

San Diego State

University
Tree height
Depth upto 50-70-m in clear water
• Space-borne LIDAR satellites provide unique information of various
parameters in the atmosphere at the global scale. We will divide the
space-borne LIDAR satellites into three categories:
• complete mission (ICESat, CATS-ISS)
• current mission (CALIPSO, ADM- Aeolus, ICESat-2)
• EarthCARE(2024)
 Polar orbits

● A Polar Orbit is a particular type of Low Earth Orbit.

● The satellite travels along the North-South axis .
● These are suitable for remote sensing purposes to
get a thorough coverage of the Earth.
● As a Satellite orbits in a north-south direction,
Earth spins beneath it in an west to east direction.
● As a result, a satellite in polar orbit can eventually
scan the entire surface.

https://www.ssec.wisc.edu/sose/pirs/pirs_m1_l
eo.html
Introduction to GIS 30
https://search.earthdata.nasa.gov/search/granules?p=C1355900582-LARC_ASDC&g=
G1542132709-LARC_ASDC&m=12.69140625!74.109375!3!1!0!0%2C2&tl=
1518106081!4!!&fp=CALIPSO
https://in.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?
p=Lidar+return+from+bridge&fr=mcafee&type=E210IN1000G0&imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fcait.rutgers.edu%2Fwp-content
%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F04%2Fbridge-lidar.png#id=2&iurl=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fstatic.wixstatic.com%2Fmedia
%2Fcef383_99408b23ccbe4fc1b9aeb49ddadf5214~mv2.jpg%2Fv1%2Ffill%2Fw_1000%2Ch_616%2Cal_c
%2Cq_85%2Cusm_0.66_1.00_0.01%2Fcef383_99408b23ccbe4fc1b9aeb49ddadf5214~mv2.jpg&action=click
 Reflectivity

• Highly reflective objects may

saturate some laser detectors,
while the return signal from
low-reflectivity objects may
occasionally be too weak to
register as valid

• Minimum detectable object

size depends on reflectivity

• A strong sunlight reflection off

a highly reflective target may
"saturate" a receiver,
producing an invalid or less
accurate reading*

*most acquisition is done in a preferred range of angles to avoid this issue

LIDAR – Intensity Image

REASoN San Diego State

Project University
LIDAR Intensity - Applications
• GIS systems
• Backdrop imagery
• Verify planimetric accuracy of existing images and GIS data
• Updating GIS layers
• Natural resource management
• Presence/absence of vegetation
• Vegetation condition
• Recent soil disturbance
APPLICATIONS
AGRICULTURE
 Mayan civilization

Archaeology and Cultural Heritage

BUILDING HEIGHT
ELEVATION
SLOPES
 sports

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://vsls.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/DSI-HD-3D-Laser-
Scanning_VSLS-Sept-2018.pdf
Bridge Anti-Collision Solutions with long
range LiDAR scanner
Damage (Mass Loss) Quantification on
Concrete Bridge Girders Using 3D LiDAR (Liu
et al., 2010a)
The bridge girder sitting has significant concrete mass loss due to uneven load distribution. Using the
scanning
laser, the volume and area losses under each girder can be computed
Deflection is essentially the bend
or curve that various materials
can have when forces are applied
to them.

canning laser for bridge deflection

measurements: Bridge under given static load is
often measured for displacement, stress, or strain
of selected points using contact sensors such as
strain gauges and displacement transducers. The
3D LiDAR scanner for static load-deflection
measurement shows the deflection measurements
for position 1 where deflection below truckload is
clearly shown.
https://gisresources.com/lidar-technology-monitoring-bridge-structure-defect-health/
 Remote Sensing for Bridge Monitoring
Shen-En Chen1 118Geotechnical Special Publication No. 214 ©
ASCE 201

The bridge has nine steel girders under a reinforced concrete

deck. Two heavy trucks were used to provide the static loading at fixed locations of
the bridge. The weights of the trucks were roughly 50 tons each. Using before and
during truck loading, the deflection of the entire span can be determined and is shown
in Figure 4. The accuracy of the measurement has been determined to be 3 mm.
 Figure 2 shows a bridge deck pavement that
includes asphalt road surface, roadway painting,
and a crack zone. By analysis the histograms of
the reflectivity values from those three surface
types, the differences of the histographic
distribution can be easily identified. ...
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Histograms-of-the-reflectance-values-of-three-different-bridge-surface-
types_fig1_235760906
•LiDAR is a valuable tool for measuring and
recording x, y, z data for use in 3D structural
mapping/modeling of bridges from point clouds.
•Identifying potential bridge subsidence
• settling and other deterioration such as cracks,
spalling, corrosion and bridge damage.
•Bridge clearance
•Deflection
•Monitoring bridge construction
•Urban planning
•Natural resource
•Mining subsidence
•Maritime surveillance
THANKS
MGFmN2ZjOThmOTdmNDRiMTQyYjRkNWQwODg0ZWIwOTM3Y
zQiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QifQ.eyJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL2FjY291bnRzLm
dvb2dsZS5jb20iLCJhenAiOiIyMTYyOTYwMzU4MzQtazFrNnFlMDY
wczJ0cDJhMmphbTRsamRjbXMwMHN0dGcuYXBwcy5nb29nbGV
1c2VyY29udGVudC5jb20iLCJhdWQiOiIyMTYyOTYwMzU4MzQtaz
FrNnFlMDYwczJ0cDJhMmphbTRsamRjbXMwMHN0dGcuYXBwcy
5nb29nbGV1c2VyY29udGVudC5jb20iLCJzdWIiOiIxMDMzODI1Nz
Q1OTA2NDI5NDE5NzgiLCJlbWFpbCI6InNoaXZtb2hhbi5pc3JvQGd
tYWlsLmNvbSIsImVtYWlsX3ZlcmlmaWVkIjp0cnVlLCJuYmYiOjE3M
zM1NzM4NzIsIm5hbWUiOiJTaGl2IE1vaGFuIiwicGljdHVyZSI6Imh0
dHBzOi8vbGgzLmdvb2dsZXVzZXJjb250ZW50LmNvbS9hL0FDZzhv
Y0tLbU5WaUMxSXRMLUpKQ1puamxQYXBsOENlS3VOR2RUTFc2
V2N2cDdhN3ZuTG9mYk9HPXM5Ni1jIiwiZ2l2ZW5fbmFtZSI6IlNoa
XYiLCJmYW1pbHlfbmFtZSI6Ik1vaGFuIiwiaWF0IjoxNzMzNTc0MTc
yLCJleHAiOjE3MzM1Nzc3NzIsImp0aSI6IjZjMTI2MGRkOWViNjI5Y
zk5MjA2MGRkZTdiMjI4NzlhYWNkOGM5MmEifQ.Q0OrjQ4VW0v
siOY1NdncwlxcKkNeQNGwC21nXfFBpB2RxoOkfb2cNobvg7sJLbb
RTa-qCuSvmACGON0AtkDvYF75yARtYzxABn3AaMMHjNSHzwjEA-
Z-jxsxx7jbz4kQ4vNhiDIREOlb67ztEmJWfCoXCSOWWGvavqfcRZq-
IftsRRa3P4ru6CuwDjwclXXinMwqBf9wDw3AFDP-
2ay8E0FTcR2qw48NP2I2Hyxzwi4hJwvy8uO_q9WkYJTanvo1yuTb
Oh-
l58l61UB4xV66yryV6Koevqj1gjgm37IJLEHWydul9PeGaEr2BRYpZ
C4TSYxYMSZTcrJ8S4D6QD127A
 Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous Vehicles
3D LiDAR for the bridge under clearance measurements: LiDAR
systems can provide bridge vertical clearance information for the entire
bridge with accuracies in the order of millimeters.
3D LiDAR for the bridge under clearance measurements: LiDAR systems can
provide bridge vertical clearance information for the entire bridge with accuracies in the
order of millimeters.
Advantages
1.Provide accurate quantitative bridge assessment
currently lacking in bridge inspection procedures
2.The automated system allows direct bridge
evaluation without further analysis: suitable for
non-technical personnel, i.e. bridge inspectors.
3.Easy to develop and apply evaluation standards
4.LiDAR is a valuable tool for measuring and
recording x, y, z data for use in 3D structural
mapping/modeling of bridges from point clouds.
5.Identifying potential bridge subsidence or
settling and other deterioration such as cracks,
spalling, corrosion and bridge damage.
6.Reduces risk and potential schedule over
traditional survey and inspection method.
7.By using of LiDAR is that the data can be
collected day and night, at any terrain.
•High resolution georeferenced colorized point cloud from LiDAR scans with
panoramic images can provide detailed geometric information about a bridge. 3D
visual inspection and analysis of colorized LiDAR point cloud can easily provide
information about physical damages to the bridge structure.
oversee comprehensive structural assessments without direct human
intervention. use Lidar data to detect subtle deformities, stress points, and
other anomalies that might compromise a bridge’s stability.
he use of Lidar-equipped UAVs on the Golden Gate Bridge set a new
benchmark for structural monitoring. The detailed 3D models generated
allowed engineers to detect and address issues that were previously
undetectable through conventional methods.
LIDAR SATELLITES
• 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th returns have different X,Y (&Z)
• Results in additional LIDAR points
pplications
LiDAR finds its applications in various fields, such as:
•Forestry: Assessing tree heights and canopy structures.
•Agriculture: Monitoring crop health and yield estimation.
•Urban Planning: Creating detailed 3D city models.
•Archaeology: Discovering hidden archaeological sites.
DEM is commonly used in:
•Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Creating topographic maps.
•Hydrology: Modeling water flow and flood risk assessment.
•Civil Engineering: Planning infrastructure projects
LIDAR DATA
. Classification Data:
•Discrete Return: Most common format, capturing the first object the
laser pulse encounters. Suitable for basic terrain mapping and 3D
modeling.
•Multiple Return: Records all points the pulse reflects, offering
detailed information about vegetation layers and complex structures.
•Full Waveform: Captures the entire laser pulse shape, enabling
advanced analysis of object properties and material composition.
Attribute Data:
•Intensity: Reflects the strength of the returned signal, indicating object
reflectivity and aiding material identification.
•RGB/NIR: Color information captured by additional sensors, useful for
visual analysis and object classification.
•Scan Angle: Indicates the direction of the laser pulse, aiding in precise
point positioning and data filtering.
File Formats:
•LAS (.las & .laz): The industry standard, offering
flexibility and supporting various data types.
•XYZ & ASCII: Simpler formats with limited
attributes, suitable for basic applications.
•PLY: Versatile format for 3D data, often used for
visualization and sharing.
 Choosing the Right Data: Applications and
Considerations
The optimal LiDAR data type depends on
your specific application:
•Topography and Terrain Mapping: Discrete return
with elevation and intensity data is sufficient.
•Forestry and Vegetation Analysis: Multiple return
data with intensity and RGB/NIR information is
ideal.
•Infrastructure Inspection and Modeling: Full
waveform data with scan angle information
provides comprehensive details.
With the right tools and expertise, you can unlock
further potential from LiDAR data:
•Classification: Algorithms can automatically
categorize points based on their attributes (e.g.,
ground, vegetation, buildings).
•Feature Extraction: Identify and measure
specific objects like trees, power lines, or buildings.
•3D Modeling: Generate realistic digital
representations of landscapes or structures.
efore diving into data types, let’s explore the
two main LiDAR acquisition methods:
•Airborne LiDAR: Mounted on aircraft or drones,
this method captures vast areas quickly and
efficiently. It’s ideal for large-scale mapping,
forestry, and environmental monitoring.
•Terrestrial LiDAR: Utilizing mobile or static
scanners, this method provides high-resolution
data for smaller areas. It’s suited for infrastructure
inspection, building surveys, and intricate object
modeling.
 Urban Planning and Infrastructure
Development

Environmental Monitoring and Managemen

A point cloud is a collection of points of data plotted in 3D
space, using a 3D laser scanner1. In LiDAR, the point cloud is
the raw set of points derived from the LiDAR pulses which are
returned to the sensor234. The reflections are recorded as
millions of individual points, collectively called a “point cloud,”
that represent the 3D positions of objects on the surface
including buildings, vegetation, and the ground3. The points
can be classified into a number of categories (such as ground,
buildings, or low, medium and high vegetation) using an
automated classification process2.
A point cloud is a collection of individual data
points in a three-dimensional plane with each
point having a set coordinate on the X, Y, and
Z axis. When each point is placed together, it
creates a three dimensional map or model.
For example, if the data compiled to create
the point cloud is taken from a neighborhood,
it will show the location of each building, tree,
and power line, along with its elevation
relative to the ground. Depending on the data
gathered and how dense the point cloud is,
the more details and specific types of terrain
and structures you’ll see.
industries rely on point cloud modeling because it
offers three key benefits:
•Efficiency: Once you have the point cloud, you can
upload it into your preferred software platform to
get the dataset or models you need. Instead of
spending hours of time processing data, you can
let the software do the work for you.
•Accuracy: Both LiDAR and photogrammetry are
incredibly precise and accurate ways of collecting
data.
•Cost effective: Our LiDAR equipped drones can
scan up to 700 acres per day, per team to collect
the data you need. This can not only cut down on
labor costs associated with data collection, it can
help you plan a more accurate budget and avoid
expenses.
Intensity:
Intensity values are typically Lidar sensor-
dependent and identify parts of a point cloud that
are brighter than others through the strength the
laser beam returned. This is ideal for making parts
of the point cloud easily identifiable like road
markings or reflective targets.
Elevation
Elevation is classifying the data based on the
height of the points within the point cloud. Often
represented by a gradual change in color (red
representing the highest point and blue the
lowest), elevation is ideal for giving context to the
environment represented and great for Digital
Elevation Maps (DEMs).
RGB:
When you look at a colorized point cloud, you're
seeing both the dimensional measurements and
the RGB value. The effect is that users (both new
and experienced) can better contextualize the
point cloud because it looks more like a 3D
photograph.
LP360 Software for Windows
QGIS
ARCGIS Pro
Concepts of LiDAR sensor system
Introduction to Lasers and Lidar –
Definitions - History of Lidar Development - Lidar
System Components - LIDAR sensors single-
return, multi return, waveform, ,
Characteristics of Lidar Data - interaction of laser
energy with earth
surface features
Remote sensing classification
• Optical/IR
• Thermal
• Microwave

• Active/passive
Road infrastructure of a country plays a crucial role
in the national economy. Among all road
infrastructure, Bridges are one of the vital assets
and histories has given us various evidence when
bridges play a game-changing role in World War I
and World War II. Conservation, monitoring, and
maintenance of bridges are keys to improving a
country’s economic strength and sustained
operation of our society.
Recent incidents of the bridge collapse on Mumbai-
Goa highway has brought the need to the attention
of authorities of bridge safety, which are facing a
crisis of high deterioration rates, and scarcity of
maintenance, inspection, and new construction
funding.
3D visual inspection and analysis of
colorized LiDAR point cloud can easily provide
information about physical damages to
the bridge structure.
https://in.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?
p=Lidar+return+from+bridge&fr=mcafee&type=E210IN1000G0&imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fcait.rutgers.edu%2Fwp-content
%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F04%2Fbridge-lidar.png#id=2&iurl=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fstatic.wixstatic.com%2Fmedia
%2Fcef383_99408b23ccbe4fc1b9aeb49ddadf5214~mv2.jpg%2Fv1%2Ffill%2Fw_1000%2Ch_616%2Cal_c
%2Cq_85%2Cusm_0.66_1.00_0.01%2Fcef383_99408b23ccbe4fc1b9aeb49ddadf5214~mv2.jpg&action=click
https://nsidc.org/data/icesat

Earthdata: loginhttps://search.earthdata

.nasa.gov/search/collection-details?p=C1439274438-ORNL_DAAC&m=
16.1015625!74.53125!3!1!0!0%2C2&q=C1439274438-ORNL_DAAC&ok=
C1439274438-ORNL_DAAC&ac=true
https://nsidc.org/data/icesat
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUg_Xcm1MII
https://docs.qgis.org/2.18/en/docs/training_manual/forestry/basic_lidar.html

QGIS documentation:

15.8. Lesson: DEM from LiDAR Data¶

Esri started supporting LAS files (LiDAR format) as a native format in the latest version
of its ArcGIS Pro software.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
app=desktop&v=W_kDEKAsUzg
the application of terrestrial LiDAR for bridge
health monitoring well studied and implemented
by transportation departments.
QUESTION BANK

1, Explain working principle of Lidar

2. Explain applications of Lidar sensor

3. What are the measurements done by Lidar sensor?

4.What do you mean by ranging?

5 A Lidar instrument measures two depth at an interval of 1 Km.

What would be time difference in receiving the return pulse
Quiz:
Write yes or No:
1. Lidar is a coherent sensor
2. Lidar is a passive remote sensing instrument
3. Lidar can be operated at any time of day or night
4. Lidar sensor uses sun light as a source of radiation
5. Lidar can not measure tree structure
6. Lidar can be used for ocean bathymetry application
7. Lidar and radar have same meaning
8. DEM and DSM have same meaning
9. Canopy height can be estimated using Lidar sensor
10. Lidar sensor can not measure topographic height
THANKS
KEY CONCEPTS
1.SOURCE OF RADIATION
2.SENSOR DATA
3.PLATFORM
4.INFORMATION EXTRACTION
5.APPLICATIONS
 What is remote sensing ?

• Remote – away from or

at a distance
• Sensing – detecting a
property or
characteristic

INTERPRETATION

House/Hut
The term "remote sensing," first used in the United
States in the 1950s by Ms.Evelyn Pruitt of the U.S.
Office of Naval Research.

is now commonly used to describe the science—and

art—of identifying, observing, and measuring an
object without coming into direct contact with it..

– “The art and science of obtaining information

about an object without being in direct contact
with the object” (Jensen 2000).
REMOTE SENING DATA COLLECTION METHODS

OPTICAL/IR REMOTE SENSING

PANCHROMATIC

COLOR

MULTISPECTRAL

HYPERSPECTRAL
Panchromatic

Multispectral

Hyperspectral

IMAGE
a) Photographic product
b) Digital Product
Remote Sensing Classification

#Based on wavelength region

# Based on radiation source
 Ranging

t= R/c
R=VT/2
Oscillating mirror scanning technique (El-
Sheimy et al., 2005)
Elliptical scanning technique (El-Sheimy et al.,
2005)
 A point cloud is a collection of points of data plotted in 3D space,
using a 3D laser scanner. If you're scanning a building, for example,
each virtual point would represent a real point on the wall, window,
stairway, metalwork, or any surface the laser beam meets.
A scanner automatically combines the vertical and horizontal angles
created by a laser beam to calculate an X, Y, and Z coordinate
position. Each point produces a set of 3D coordinate measurements
which often includes its color value stored in RGB and intensity.

Are point clouds clear representations of the

Point Clouds generated from Lidar for Beginners | ARTICLE | FA
real world? RO
The denser the points, the more detailed the
representation, clearly defining smaller features
and texture details. If you were to zoom in on a
point cloud, you'd see tiny points creating the
whole 3D model. More points in an area equal a
clearer visualization of the scanned environment.
https://www.faro.com faroPoint
Clouds generated from Lidar for Beginners | ARTICLE | FARO
LIDAR – Light Detection And Ranging

San Diego State

University
 More LIDARS in space
• ICESat (January 12, 2003)
• 532,1064 nanometer lidar
• ice sheet mass balance
• aerosol and cloud heights
• vegetation and land topography
• http://icesat.gsfc.nasa.gov/

• CALIPSO (2006)
• 532 nm and 1064 nm) polarization-sensitive lidar
• clouds and aerosols
• http://www-calipso.larc.nasa.gov/
• Ended Aug 2023

ICESat 2 ( 2018)
• To Continue
• 13 m footprint, 45 m swath
• Product: ALT03 ( Global photon data),ALT18( Land surface , canopy height)
• https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov/