Teaching and learning Methodology

For health
officers
Credit Hr:
2
Comp.bY
Mekonnen
W
Lecture
 Learning objectives
 What is teaching?
 What is the purpose of teaching?
 What is the process of teaching?
 What are the types of teaching?
 What are the various teaching methods?
 What are the qualities of good teaching?
 How best to teach?
 How to assess your teaching?
 What is teaching?
Definition:
Teaching is a process intended for learning by
inducing a behavioral change in the taught
It is an art of communicating a message with impact
on audience.

Pedagogy is an art or profession of teaching

 Purpose of teaching

Teaching creates knowledge awareness and feelings

in the taught and brings about behavioral change

Teacher learns while teaching

 Teaching process
 Teacher Message Taught

 Well
prepared CLEAR, SENSITIZED
AND RECEPTIVE
ACCURATE
BRIEF
SPECIFIC

No
Communication
barriers
 Learning cycle

COGNITIVE PSYCHOMOTOR AFFECTIVE

DOMAIN DOMAIN DOMAIN

KNOWING BEING DOING

KNOWLEDGE ATTITUDE
PRACTICE
TEACHING
 Teaching equips

Cognitive domain with knowledge and

psychomotor domain with feelings and interest.
Both these domains affect the affective domain to
do or practice.
If this practicing of teaching is done on regular
basis with positive feeling ,liking for the subject ,
subject will be internally absorbed and retained
 TYPES OF TEACHING

ACTIVE
PASSIVE
LEARNER ORIENTED
TEACHER ORIENTED
 A.Formal presentation B.Group discussion:
1. Lecture/speech 1-Buzz group/Buzz
2. Dialogue session
3. symposium 2-Work shop
4. Panal discussion 3-Conference/seminar
5. colloquy
4-Role-playing
6. Forum
5-demonistration
6-Brain storming
1. Lecture
2. discussion
3. Seminar
4. Symposium
5. Panel discussion
6. Group discussion
7. Tutorials
8. Role play
9. Integrated teaching (horizontal and vertical)
10. Talking point sessions
11. Workshops
12. Conferences
 Let us see one by one
• 1. Lecture
• A lecture is a talk or verbal presentation
given by a lecturer, trainer or speaker to an
audience
• It is still a backbone widely used in
teaching and training at higher level of
education
 1. Lecture
• It creates new ideas.
• • It is good for large class.
• • Teacher is experienced and has mastery on
subject, explain all points and can answer all
questions raised by students.
• Students can ask if they need any clarification.
• • Learn through listening
• • Teacher explains all points.
• • Students give their input
• • Teacher discuss whole topic in the class in easy
language so
• students can easily understand the topic.
• • It is good for large class.
• • Teacher provides all knowledge related to
topic.
• • Time saving as teacher is supposed to finish
lecture in time.
• • Students give their views at the end of lecture.
• Students can ask question if they have any
problem to
• understand lecture.
• • Students attentively listen lecture and take
notes as the teacher
• ask questions at the end of lecture.
• • Students know and understand basic
concepts.
• Teacher knows all the students so he/she can
use suitable
• strategies for the class to make them
understand.
• • Teacher is experienced and has mastery on
subject and can
• answer all questions by students.
• • Teacher share information with students so
it creates interest in
• students
• Students are more involved and participate
when teacher ask
• question.
• • Teacher provides notes.
• • Students easily understand every point.
• • Students share knowledge with teacher.
• • Teacher is role model for students.
 2. Group discussion:
• It is a free verbal exchange of ideas between
group members or teacher and students.
• For effective discussion the students
should have prior knowledge and
information about the topic to be discussed.
 Types
of group discussion
1. Buzz group or Buzz session
• A large group is divided into small groups, or not more than
10 or 12 people in each small group.
• The different groups are either allotted different specific
problems or the same problem is allotted for all.
• Buzz session
• The whole group is reconvened and the reports of the large
group will report their findings and recommendations.
• In the plenary session final documentation will be made
(This is very similar to a workshop).
• More participation of students.
• • Students listen to other’s opinion & express
their opinion.
• • Discuss with teachers the points that were
missed during
• discussion.
• Students learn on their own & find out key
points.
• Students exchange their ideas.
• Students get point of view of all and not only
those who always
• Speak
• After discussion when students give their
presentation, teacher corrects their mistakes.
• Students can make their own notes.
• • The learning is more effective.
• They don’t have to rely on rote learning.
• • Develops creativity among students.
• • It evokes thinking among students.
• Students have time for preparation of topic.
• • Students should have material and
knowledge before
• discussion. Suggestion.
• • Concepts become clear after discussion.
• • Every student gives his/ her opinion.
 3. Individual presentation
• Hamm (2008) quoted Rafe; “A presentation
involves motivating listeners to accept a new
idea, alter an existing opinion, or act on a
given premise.”
• • Students first thoroughly understand the
topic before giving presentation i.e. mastery
on topic.
• It increases confidence among students.
• • Good way to learn for only one student who
is presenting.
• • Students search lot of books to collect
material
• • Teacher’s supervision is important
 4. Assignment
• It enhances the ability of research on any
topic as the students
• search topic from different books, websites
etc.
• • Active learning
5. Seminars
 Seminar
• a small group of students meeting regularly
under the guidance of a tutor, professor, etc.,
to exchange information, discuss theories, et
• Give Chance to meet other people of same
profession.
• • Motivate and make student active in
learning.
• • Interested method.
 Cont--

• • The purpose of a seminar is to study the

subject matter, by a group of persons under the
leadership of experts in the field.
• very frequently are associated with research.
• 6. Workshops
• A large number of people belonging to a
particular or discipline or allied disciplines collect
together to take up specific issues and problems
for making recommendation for future action
 7. Conferences
• Give Chance to meet other people of same
profession.
• • Networking with other institutions and
professionals.
 8. Brain storming
• It is a crudely structured form of
discussion for generating ideas without
participants involved in unproductive analysis.
It is a very useful technique for
• problem solving, decision making, creative
thinking and team building.
• It develops listening skills.
 Brain stormining
• More interesting
• • More informative
• • Gain knowledge
• • Learning is effective
• • More participation of students
• • Students give their opinion
• Active learning
• • Creative thinking is encouraged.
• • Students think beyond their knowledge.
• • Every one gets the chance to express their
thoughts.
• • Simple topics can be learnt through different
angles.
 9. Role play
• it occurs when participants take on
differentiated roles in a simulation
• Interesting method
• Creative thinking is encouraged.
• Students think beyond their knowledge.
• Students enjoy the situation
• Active learning
• Easy to learn
 10. Case study
This method is basically used to develop
critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as
well as to present students with real-life
situations
Active learning
• Creative thinking is encouraged.
•Students think beyond their knowledge.
 11. Colloquy
• A few members from the audience are made to
stimulate discussion by presenting the problems or
raising questions.
• A group of experts on the stage give their comments
and answers on the various aspects.
• useful when there are specific problems to be
discussed for solution.
• One of the experts acts as a moderator and
conducts the discussion.
• The effectiveness of the colloquy will depend on the
efficiency of the moderator.
 12. Forum

• Lecture, symposium or panel, if it is desired to

give opportunity to the audience to
participate by raising questions, doubts, etc,
then the forum is arranged for at the end of
the panel discussion, symposium or lecture.
• It is a good feedback mechanism.
 Criteria of good teaching

Good Concept ( thorough preparation)

Organized Content( lesson planning)
Good Quality and optimum quantity
Sequence
Relevance
Learner oriented
 How to teach?
TEACHING PRACTICE

1. Set induction
2. Introducing topic
3. Topic organization
4. Reinforcing or stimulating
5. Summarizing
 How to teach?...

1. Set induction
Bringing the mood of the audience into the topic.

Make sure that your audience is ready to receive the

message you are going to deliver by any means
which will make them attentive and receptive like:
 Verbal questioning
 Handouts
 Problem/exercises
 How to teach?...
2. Introduction to the topic

Introduce the topic to the students by means of

 Title
 Learning objectives
 Performance objectives
 How to teach? …
3. Organizing the topic
Prepare lesson plan keeping in mind

 Relevance
 Sequence
 Editing
 Time management
 How to teach?...
4. Reinforcement and stimulation
Reinforcing
Make the lesson both comprehensive and interesting
by reinforcing with:

 Facts and figures

 Problems/exercises
 Giving Examples
 Making it a two way lecture discussion by asking few
questions( particularly the students who are not
attentive.
 How to teach?...
stimulating
Make it more interesting and lively by:
 Repetition of the main points
 Stressing the important ones
 Pauses to make something more effective
 Relevant personal experiences
 Purposeful body movements, gestures, voice
modulations, eye contact etc.
 Teaching flows

Teaching is a flow of thoughts ( stream of thoughts)

It is a continuous process , hence there should be no

unwanted interruptions.
Stream of thoughts
 How to teach?...
5. Summarizing
Summarize your lecture by:

 Checking whether you have explained all the

learning objectives you have chosen.
 Just repeat your learning objectives giving stress on
main points.
 Please note that summarization is not evaluation or
assessment of impact of your lecture. It completes
just delivery of lecture, but does not measure the
impact of lecture on the audience.
 Evaluation

Self designed using the understanding of the learning

objectives of the lecture as criteria.
Or
Basing on the basics of any lecture like the content,
quality of presentation etc
 Managing the students

Don’t throw the blame on the students for your failure

to create an impact with your lecture.
Students are immature, less skilled, emotional and You
are mature, more skilled and composed.
Best way to control the students is by giving them best
lectures.
 2.Teaching materials
Whether in the classroom situation or in a
conference or in a community gathering or
individual approach, teaching is facilitated and
strengthened or reinforced by the use of
suitable teaching materials/ audio-visual aids.
 Material…
 Audiovisuals are facilitators of teaching both
for the sender and for the receiver.
 Classification of teaching Aids:

1.PROJECTED AIDS:
 The film (cinema)
 Filmstrip,
 Slides and transparencies
 1.1 Film or the Cinema

Advantages:
1.True-life situation is reproduced.
2.A complete view of all physical aspects of anything
is made possible.
3.Since the film is under motion an actual process of
act or event is understood without having to be
explained separately.
 …Cont
4. It is self-explanatory.
5. It adds a special interest in the audience to watch
the film. It gets more attraction and attention
than listening to a talk.
6. Many emotional effects can be brought about in
the film, which will leave a lasting impression in
the mind.
7. In the motion picture the coordination of sound
and sight provides a realistic effect.
 …Cont
Limitations
1.Electricity or battery should be available.
2.The place has to be darkened.
3.Often a shelter is required to project special
equipment.
4.A technician to operate the projector is required.
5.The equipment and the preparation of the film are
both very costly.
 1.2 Slides

• Slide is a transparency of any picture or write-

up prepared on transparent materials.
• It can be projected by the use of a slide
projector.
• Slides can both be used for smaller as well as
larger audiences and also for educational
purposes too.
 1.3 Transparencies
• Transparencies are large size slides.
• projected with the help of an overhead projector.
• meant specially for group situation.
• easily prepared within a short time.
• Transparencies are of particular value in a classroom,
seminars, and symposium, etc., where a group of
people has to discuss a technical subject.
 1.4 Television

• This is a combination
of wireless and
cinema.
• TV is widely used in
schools, airports,
railway stations,
exhibitions, etc.
 …Cont
 Advantages:
 Many topics can be projected and can be
conveyed.
 It can provide entertainment as well as
educational materials.
 It can cater to all groups.
 Disadvantages :
 The cost and accessibility.
 Electricity is required.
2.GRAPHIC OR PICTURESQUE AIDS
• Consist of drawings, sketches, cartoons,
pictures, etc., and also graphs, chart, tables,
etc.
• They are shown or displayed as such and do
not necessarily depend on any projected
equipment.
2.1 Picture
 The picture is drawn or painted
and is the expression of ideas
and feelings.
 A picture is drawn according
to the perception of the mind.
 2.2 Photograph

• A photograph is the actual

image of any object or
person,
• taken by the application of
the principle of light
devised in a photographic
camera.
 2.3 Poster
• Poster is a picture with a message or caption or slogan
written not only to explain but also to catch the
attention of the passersby.

• Occasionally posters may have mere written matter

and no picture or drawing.

• generally used for mass education and are displayed in

prominent places where people move about in large
numbers.

• Posters are also displayed in exhibitions .

 …Cont

To make a good poster the following points

should be remembered:
1.It size should be large enough to draw attention to
the public from near and far.
2.The message in the poster should be able to
stimulate the thinking of the audience.
3.Always put one single idea for each poster and not
to bring in a number of ideas in the same poster
and make it unintelligible.
 …Cont

4.The subject matter should be as short as possible, so

as to fix and hold the attention of the people.
5.The letters and designs should be bold and big
enough to seen from a distance.
6.The lay out of the picture must be properly balanced
to give a correct sense of proportion and inter-
relationship between pictures.
 Purpose of posters:

 To give information and advice to people

eg. be ware of AIDS prevention
 To give direction and instruction for actions
eg. The ABC's of HIV AIDS prevention
 To announce important events and program
eg. world ADIS day.
 But posters can also become monotonous and stale
if not changed frequently.
2.4 Cartoon
 It is a design or sketch on
paper or cloth usually of the
nature of a caricature
illustrating and making fun of
topical events.
 Cartoons are generally made
in newspapers or magazines
to give satirical or jocular
commentary on any events.
 2.5 Charts & Graphs

• used to present numerical data as well as materials in

abstract form.
eg. Growth monitoring chart
• Graph is a chart form that is used to present statistical data
and present the relationship between variables. eg. Bar
graph
• Charts and graphs are useful to summarize, explain and
interpret numerical facts by means of points, lines, areas,
geometric forms and
• To facilitate comparison of values, trends, and relationships.
 …cont
2.6 Map:
Map is an accurate representation in the form
of a diagram of the surface of the earth or of
some parts of it, drawn to a scale.
 2.7 Printed materials:
• Leaflets, folders, brochure; booklet and pamphlets
• A pamphlet is also called a brochure or booklet.
• Single sheet with one or more folds is often spoken of as
pamphlets.
• They are folders of leaflets.
• An unfolded sheet is a leaflet file or handbill.
• A pamphlet must as brief as possible.
 2.8 Display boards:
Flannel Board, Bulletin (notice) Board, and
Chalkboard
 Chalkboard:-
• any dark color, flat smooth surface in which
you can write and draw with a chock.
• simplest visual aid.
 Advantage
• Cheap to get and maintain
• Readily available
• Transportable
• Simple to use
• Ease to draw people can image and
understand
• Supplement other aids
 Disadvantage

• You can not adjust the position

• Two dimensional
 3. THREE DIMENSIONAL AIDS
 Here the actual specimen, objects, models,
etc. are put up for demonstration.
 Models are prepared to imitate the actual
objects or specimens
eg. latrine model
 4. AUDIO AIDS

• The common ones in use are megaphone,

microphone or public address system;
gramophone records and discs; tape
recorder and the radio.
 …cont
• These serve very well to reproduce spoken
words or any kind of noises made and help in
repeating the same a number of times.
• They are very useful in teaching and also for
entertainment and mass communication.
 5. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
A combination of visual and auditory stimuli
for communication can be more effective than
either visual or auditory alone because of the
involvement of two sensory organs.
 6. OTHER AIDS
• Folk songs, folk dances, drama, puppet show,
puppet stage, puppet plays
• These folk media are used to introduce
sociological themes.
Effective Communication
• The successful exchange of information
between individuals.
• when the receiver interprets the
sender’s message in the same way the
sender intended it.
Successful communication
• Is said to be accomplished when the
receiver not only receives the message
but also accept, interpret and use it in
the manner intended by the source

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Effective communicator
• An effective communicator is
successful in establishing an active
two-way link with another individual
or group.

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 Use of Communication
• Have dialogue with communities including
minorities and disadvantaged groups.
• Influence decision makers to adopt health
promoting policies and laws
• Raise awareness among decision makers
issues of poverty, human rights, equity,
environmental issues.
• Ensure that the public gives support to
government health promoting activities.
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 cont---
• Communicate new laws and policies
to the public
• Raise public awareness of issues in
order to mobilize community
participation.
• Develop community action on health
issues.

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 Components of communication process

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 A-Source (Encoder):
• This is the originator of message, which
can be an individual or groups; or it can
also be institution or organization
• He should communicate his message in
the way that a message easily
understood by the receiver
• He should arrange his/her ideas in such a
manner that he organizes his message
for the benefit of the receiver.

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Characteristics of effective communicator

1. He/she should be knowledgeable and

fully conversant with the subject under
discussion.
2. He/she should have credibility before
sincerity, honesty and intellectual
capability.

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 Cont---
3. The communicator need to have
proper communication skill and
should have skill in selecting and
using the channel.
4. The communicator should have proper
attitude towards the receiver and the
subject matter.
5. Feedback should be ensured.

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 B-Message
• This is the idea that is communicated
• Mostly expressed in the form of
language or symbols.
• It causes a response to occur instead of
this called as a stimulus.

Characteristics of good message

1.It should be need-based and timely and
appropriate or relevant.
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 cont.…
2. It should be supported by factual
material to give it proper
authenticity.
3. The channel should be manageable
by the communicator and should be
appropriate.
4. It should be clear, understandable
and reliable
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 Effectiveness of the message
determined by
• Psychological factors: intelligence,
level of education, prior information,
and selective perception.
• Linguistic factors: vocabulary,
grammar, etc.
• Receiver factors: culture, class, etc.

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Encoding
• The process translates ideas, facts, feelings, opinions
etc. into symbols, signs, actions, pictures, audio-
visuals etc.
Channel
• Physical means by which a message travels from
source to receiver.
• It should be familiar both to the communicator
and communicatee.
• It should be appropriate to the message.
• It should be available and accessible.
Classification of channels
(1) Interpersonal (face to face)
(2) Mass media
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Decode
A mental process by which Stimuli received by
individual sense organ are given proper meaning
according to individual way of thinking
Receiver
• This is the person for whom the communication
is intended
• The receiver of the message exercises not only
the sensory organs but also his brain and mind.
• The brain analyses the message and makes
sense out of it (this referred as
perception=decoding + thinking)

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 Effect
• Change in receiver's attitude,
knowledge and practice.
Feed back
• The final result we get from the
receiver, it can be positive or negative
• Feed back is not necessarily in written
language

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 Types of Communication
• 1. One-way communication
Sender  message  Channel  Receiver.

• This is a linear type of communication in which

information flows from the source to the receiver
• There is no input (feed back) from the receiver
• The model is best used when the message is
simple and needs to be communicated quickly .
• There is no opportunity to clear up
misunderstanding and meaning is controlled by
the receiver.
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 Type of communication
• 1. One-way communication

Message
Source Receiver
Channel

•This is a linear type of communication in which

information flows from the source to the receiver
•There is no input (feed back) from the receiver
•The model is best used when the message is simple
and needs to be communicated quickly .
•There is no opportunity to clear up misunderstanding
and meaning is controlled by the receiver.
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 Advantages
- Faster participation audience
Disadvantages
• Little attention
• No feed back
• Does not influence behavior

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 2. Two-way communication

• As the message is more complex, two

way communication becomes essential.
• Information flows from the source to
the receiver and back from the receiver
to the source
• The message is controlled by the sender

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Advantages
-More audience participation
- Learning is more democratic
- feed back is possible
-Influence behavior change
Disadvantages
- Time taking
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 Stages in communication process
The following diagram shows the stage in communication process

Sender Receiver

gain attention

Message understood

Acceptance and change

Behavioral change

Change in health

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 Stage 1.Reaching the intended
audience
• Any communication must attract
attention so that people will make the
effort to listen and read it.
• It can not effective unless it seen or
heard by effective audience
• The common problem is reaching the
converter
E.g. Posters placed at the clinic or talks
given at the antenatal clinics.
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 Stage 2-Attracting the audience’s
attention
• Any communication must attract
attention so that people will make
the effort to listen/read it.
• It is possible an individual exposed
to different information at the same
time only she/he give attention to
one of the message in which he/she
absorbed

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 Factors that increase attraction during
communications fall in to two main groups

A. Physical characteristics that attract attention

include
– Size e.g. size of the whole poster
– Intensity –bald reading in a sentence
– High pitched sounds e.g. police sirens
– Color-primary colors such as red and yellow
– Pictures-photographs and drawing
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B. Motivational characteristics
– Novelty-an unusual features,
unfamiliar and surprising
objects
– Interest-felt needs of audience
– Entertainment and humor

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 Stage 3: Understanding the
message (perception)
• Two person hear the same thing but they
might interpret (understand) differently
• This may be due to
– When complex language will be used
– When unfamiliar technical words are used
– When too much information is bumped at
one time

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 Stage 4: Promoting change
(acceptance)
• A communication should not only be
received & understood; it should be
believed & accepted.
• It is easier to change beliefs when
they have been acquired only
recently and when its effects can be
easily demonstrated.
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 Common examples of communication
failure
– Walking past the poster without
bothering to look at it.
– Not paying attention to the health
talk or
demonstration at the clinic.
– Turning off the radio programme or
switching
over.
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 Stage 5: Producing a change in
behavior
• For a change in behavior to occur the
target of the communication should
lies towards change in behavior
• The enabling factor should be
fulfilled
• Peer, family assistance will be
necessary
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 Stage 6: Improvement in health.
• Improvements in health will only take place
if the behaviors have been carefully selected
so that they really do influence health
• If your messages are based on outdated &
incorrect ideas, people could follow your
advice but their health would not improve
• In short, for improvement of health
appropriate information is mandatory

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 Methods of communication…

3. Group communication
• Group communication is a face-to-face
communication with several other people.
• The members they have a common interest
& work together for a common goal.
• Groups have an impact on decision making.

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 Group communication cont…

• Small-group communication refers to the nature

of communication that occurs in groups that are
between 3 and 12 to 20 individuals .

• Small group communication generally takes place

in a context that mixes
interpersonal communication interactions with
social clustering.

• Its draw back is, large groups tend to be

dominated by one or two members to the
detriment of the others.
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 Methods of communication…
4. Mass Communication

• It represents the creation and sending of a

homogeneous message to a large
heterogeneous audience through the media.

• It studies the uses and effects of the media

by many as opposed to the study of human
interaction as in other communication
contexts.
• The units of analysis for mass
communication are the messages, the
mediums, and the audience.
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 Barriers of communication

• Definition
Factors that hinder the communication
process and result in unintended outcome.

• Is something that interfered or stopped

the effective transfer of message

111
 Classification of Barriers

• Barriers broadly classified as

 Physical/environmental barriers
 Psychological/emotional barriers
 Socio-cultural barriers
 Physiological barriers

112
 Physical/Environmental barriers

• are often due to the nature of the

environment including
– Distance
– Shortage of resources
– Use of poor and outdated equipment
– Destruction (Noise)
– Organizational structure.

113
 Psychological/Emotional Barriers

People’s state of mind

Personal problems like - worries about his health, marriage

Attitudinal/Beliefs barriers
lack of motivation
resistance to change
Lack of interest in the message
Fear and mistrust

114
 Cont…
Negative attitude and distorted perception
More affinity to self rather than audience
No entry point of agreement
Aggressiveness
Communication apprehension
Information overload

115
 Socio-cultural Barriers
• Cultural differences
• Status differences
• Failure to communicate (shy)
• Language differences
• Age and Sex difference
• Definition and choice of words
• Poor choice and use of channels

116
 Physiological Barriers

• Ill-health
• Poor eye sight
• Hearing inability
• Failure for attention/concentration

117
 How to deal with barriers
• Any communication should be designed
fulfilling principles of communication.
• Any communication process should consider
all aspects of its components to obtain
effective communication outcomes.

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 Reinforcing tools for communication

• Checking • Encouraging
• Advising • Checking
• Listening • Advising
. • Listening
.
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Prerequisites for effective communication
In relation to:-
• Communicator
• Message
• Channel
• Receiver

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 Communicator

• Familiar with the objective.

• Proper communication skill.
 Use straight forward language
 Careful listening
 Pose questions to check audience understanding
 Natural and understandable expression of emotion

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 Cont…
Knowledgeable and fully conversant with the subject under
discussion.
Proper attitude towards the receiver and subject mater.
Identify targets properly.
–age and sex
–social status
–education
–job/work
–interests/problems/needs
Avoid unnecessary communication.
establishing good relation ship with the audience

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 Message

• The success or failure in

communication depends to a large
extent on:
• Correctness or accuracy
• Essence or substance of the message

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 Characteristics of good message
• Satisfy the objective
• Clear
• In the level with the audience background
• Significant
• Specific
• Simple
• Timely and appropriate
• Adequate
• Applicable

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 Cont…

• To ensure the above qualities, we need

to treat the message and ensure that the
message is appropriate for the method
employed for presentation

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 Channel

• Should be familiar both to the communicator and

communicatee.
• Appropriate to the message and audience.
• Available and accessible.

– Noise is kept to the minimum or eliminated if possible.

– The medium should not be a barrier.

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 Receiver
• Receiver should be able to receive the message physically,
mentally and psychologically and must remove their own
barriers. Eg.
• The non-listener type – who refuse to listen
• The know-it-all type – who thinks he/she knows the
answer to everything.
• The impatient type – who is reluctant to sit and
jumps to conclusion.
• The negative personality – who enjoys saying ‘no’ to
everyone.

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 Cont…
• Proper attitude and desire to receive the
message.
• Should be able to utilize the channel (intact
sensory organ).
• The greater the audience participation, the
greater the involvement and acceptance (===
good feedback)

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 Training and education
• Training: Increasing the skills that will enable
employees to better meet the organization’s
goals.
– Training may be provided for technical skills
related to performing the employee’s job, and
interpersonal skills such as teamwork and
communication skills.
• On-the-Job Training: Teaching the job while
trainer and trainee do the job at the work site.
• Apprenticeship: Training that involves
working alongside an experienced person who
shows the apprentice how to do the various
tasks involved in a job or trade.
• Vestibule Training: Training that takes place
on equipment set up in a special area off the
job site
Introduction to curriculum development

DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
 Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning
process whether it is a school, college, university or training
organisation.
The textbooks used,
how teachers are trained,
development of instructional plans,
evaluation of students,
preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and
setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum.
Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can
function efficiently.
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM…..

A curriculum is…
taught in schools
 A set of subjects
 Content
 A program of studies.
A set of materials
A sequence of courses.
A course of study
 A set of performance objectives
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM…..

A curriculum is…
 Systematic learning of a specific subject
 Established fields of knowledge
 Intended learning outcomes
Useful subjects in this society
Means for personal improvement and development
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM…..

A curriculum is…
Everything that goes on within the school, including extra-
class activities, guidance, and interpersonal relationships.
Everything that is planned by school personnel.
A series of experiences undergone by learners in a school.
That which an individual learner experiences as a result of
schooling.
 An aggregate of courses of study in a school system.
 Characteristics of curriculum
Walker (2003) argues that the fundamental concepts
of curriculum include:
content: which may be depicted in terms of concept
maps, topics and themes, all of which are abstractions
which people have invested and named;
purpose: usually categorized as intellectual, social
and personal; often divided into superordinate
purposes; stated purposes are not always reliable
indicators of actions;
 Characteristics of curriculum….
organization: planning is based upon scope and
sequence (order of presence over time); and can be
tightly organized or relatively open-ended.
From the definitions above also , it is possible to
state that a curriculum has the following
characteristics:
It comprises the experiences of children for which
the school is responsible.
It has content.
It is planned.
 It is a series of courses to be taken by students.
 Important Questions…..

Technical Aspects
How can we plan a curriculum?
How is it arranged?
Does it work and how can it be improved?

Socio-political aspects
Who makes these decisions?
Are the decisions implemented?
What are the influences on the curriculum?
What are the future priorities?
 Who is involved in curriculum?
Curriculum workers are many and include school-based
personnel such as;
 teachers,
principals
parents
university-based specialists,
industry
 community groups,
government agencies and
politicians.
 Elements of Curriculum

The curriculum has four elements that are in constant

interaction:
 purpose (goals and objectives)
content or subject matter
 methods or learning experiences
 evaluation.
 Elements of Curriculum…..
Purpose
Goals
Objectives

Methods Content
Learning Subject to
experiences be studied

Evaluation
Performance
measurement

The diagram that follows shows the interaction among these elements.
stages of Curriculum development process
 Planning
 Preparing
 Designing
 Developing
 Implementing
 evaluating
 revising
 improving
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