TISSUE LEVEL OF

ORGANISATION
 The tissue level of organization consists of a
group of cells that work together to accomplish one
or more specific functions.

 Study of tissues is called as Histology.

 Normally, most cells within a tissue remain

anchored to other cells or structures.

 Only a few cells, such as phagocytes, move freely

through the body, searching for invaders to destroy.
 Types of tissue
Body tissues can be classified into four basic types according to structure and
function:
• 1.
Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body
cavities, and ducts. It also forms glands.
• 2.
Connective tissue protects and supports the body and its organs.
Various types of connective tissue bind organs together, store energy
reserves as fat, and help provide immunity to disease-causing
organisms.
• 3.Muscular tissue generates the physical force needed to make body
structures move and generates body heat.
• 4.
Nervous tissue detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and
outside the body and responds by generating action potentials (nerve
impulses) that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions.
EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• An
epithelial tissue or epithelium consists of cells arranged in continuous
sheets, in either single or multiple layers.
• Epithelial tissue forms coverings and linings throughout the body.
• Epithelial tissues have three major functions:
• (1)
selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of substances into
and out of the body;
• (2)secretory surfaces that release products produced by the cells onto
their free surfaces; and
• (3)
protective surfaces that resist the abrasive influences of the
environment.
The various surfaces of epithelial cells often differ
in structure and have specialized functions.
1. The apical (free) surface of an epithelial
cell faces the body surface, a body cavity, the
lumen (interior space) of an internal organ, or
a tubular duct that receives cell secretions.
Apical surfaces may contain cilia or microvilli.
2. The lateral surfaces of an epithelial cell
face the adjacent cells on either side, lateral
surfaces may contain tight junctions,
adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap
junctions.
3. The basal surface of an epithelial cell is
opposite the apical surface, and the basal
surfaces of the deepest layer of cells adhere
to extracellular materials.
• The basement membrane is a thin
extracellular layer that commonly consists
of two layers, the basal lamina and
reticular lamina.
• The basal lamina is closer to— and
secreted by—the epithelial cells.
• Thereticular lamina is closer to the
underlying connective tissue
• The basement membrane functions
as a point of attachment and support
for the overlying epithelial tissue.
• Epithelial tissue has its own nerve supply, but is avascular that is, it
lacks its own blood supply.
• The blood vessels that bring in nutrients and remove wastes are
located in the adjacent connective tissue.
• Because epithelial tissue forms boundaries between the body’s
organs, or between the body and the external environment, it is
repeatedly subjected to physical stress and injury.
•A high rate of cell division allows epithelial tissue to constantly
renew and repair itself by sloughing off dead or injured cells and
replacing them with new ones.
• Epithelial tissue plays many different roles in the body; the most
important are protection, filtration, secretion, absorption, and
excretion.
Epithelial tissue may be divided into two types.
(1)Covering and lining epithelium forms the outer
covering of the skin and some internal organs. It
also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts,
and body cavities, and the interior of the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive
systems.
(2)Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting
portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal
glands, and sweat glands.
 Covering and Lining
Epithelium
The types of covering and lining epithelial tissue are classified according to two
characteristics: the arrangement of cells into layers and the shapes of the
cells
1. Arrangement of cells in layers. The cells are arranged in one or more
layers depending on the functions the epithelium performs:
a. Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion,
osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption.
b. Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo- false) appears to have multiple
layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells
reach the apical surface. Pseudostratified epithelium is actually a simple
epithelium because all its cells rest on the basement membrane.
c. Stratified epithelium (stratum layer) consists of two or more layers of
cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable
wear and tear.
2. Cell shapes. The cells vary in shape depending on their function.
• a. Squamous cells (SKWA¯ -mus flat) are arranged like floor tiles and
are thin, which allows for the rapid passage of substances.
• b. Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like
cubes or hexagons. They may have microvilli at their apical
surface and function in either secretion or absorption.
• c. Columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, like columns,
and protect underlying tissues. Their apical surfaces may have cilia or
microvilli, and they often are specialized for secretion and absorption.
• d. Transitional cells change shape, from flat to cuboidal and back,
as organs such as the urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size
and then collapse to a smaller size.
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
First type of tissue
The
Summary
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

 The function of glandular epithelium is secretion.

 A gland may consist of a single cell or a group of cells that
secrete substances into ducts (tubes), onto a surface, or into
the blood.
 All glands of the body are classified as either endocrine or
exocrine.
 The secretions of endocrine glands enter the interstitial
fluid and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream without
flowing through a duct.
 These secretions, called hormones, regulate many metabolic
and physiological activities to maintain homeostasis.
 The pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands are examples of
endocrine glands.
Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that empty
onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the
skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ.
 The secretions of exocrine glands include mucus, sweat, oil,
earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes.
Examples of exocrine glands include sudoriferous (sweat)
glands, which produce sweat to help lower body temperature,
and salivary glands, which secrete saliva.
Some glands of the body, such as the pancreas, ovaries, and
testes, are mixed glands that contain both endocrine and
exocrine tissue.
Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
 Exocrine glands are classified as unicellular or multicellular.
 Unicellular
glands are single-celled. Goblet cells are important unicellular
exocrine glands that secrete mucus directly onto the apical surface of a lining
epithelium.
 Most
glands are multicellular glands. Examples include sudoriferous, sebaceous (oil),
and salivary glands.
Multicellular glands are categorized according to two criteria:
Whether their ducts are branched or unbranched and
The shape of the secretory portions of the gland
(1) If the duct of the gland does not branch, it is a simple gland.
(2) If the duct branches, it is a compound gland.
(3) Glands with tubular secretory parts are tubular glands;
(4) Those with rounded secretory portions are acinar glands (as-i-nar; acin- berry),
also called alveolar glands.
(5) Tubuloacinar glands have both tubular and rounded secretory parts.
Functional Classification of Exocrine
Glands
• The functional classification of exocrine glands is based on
how their secretions are released.
• Merocrine Gland: Secretions of merocrine glands are
synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed,
sorted, and packaged by the Golgi complex; and released from
the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis
• Most exocrine glands of the body are merocrine glands.
Examples include the salivary glands and pancreas.
• Apocrine glands accumulate their secretory product at the
apical surface of the secreting cell. Then, that portion of the
cell pinches off from the rest of the cell to release the
secretion. The remaining part of the cell repairs itself and repeats
the process.
• Holocrine Gland: The cells of holocrine glands
accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol.
• As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and becomes the
secretory product
• The sloughed off cell is replaced by a new cell.
• One example of a holocrine gland is a sebaceous gland of
the skin.
MUSCULAR TISSUE
Muscular tissue
• Muscular
tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers
or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force.
• As
a result, muscular tissue produces body movements,
maintains posture, and generates heat.
• It also provides protection.
• Based
on its location and certain structural and functional features,
muscular tissue is classified into three types:
1. SKELETAL,
2. CARDIAC, AND
3. SMOOTH
NERVOUS TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Despite the awesome complexity of the nervous system, it consists of only two principal types
of cells:
NEURONS AND NEUROGLIA.
• Neurons, or nerve cells, are sensitive to various stimuli.
• They convert stimuli into electrical signals called action potentials (nerve impulses) and
conduct these action potentials to other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands.
• Most neurons consist of three basic parts: a cell body and two kinds of cell processes—
dendrites and axons
• The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles.
• Dendrites are tapering, highly branched, and usually short cell processes (extensions).They
are the major receiving or input portion of a neuron.
• The axon (axo- axis) of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long.
• It is the output portion of a neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or to
some other tissue.
• Even though neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have many
important supportive functions.
2. CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely
distributed tissues in the body. In its various forms, connective tissue
has a variety of functions.
1. It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues;
2. Protects and insulates internal organs;
3. Compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles;
4. Serves as the major transport system within the body (blood, a
fluid connective tissue);
5. Is the primary location of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat,
tissue); and
6. Is the main source of immune responses.
General Features of
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue consists of two basic elements:
Extracellular matrix and
Cells.

A connective tissue’s extracellular matrix is the material

located between its widely spaced cells.
Theextracellular matrix consists of protein fibers and
ground substance,
Theextracellular matrix is usually secreted by the
connective tissue cells.
For instance, in cartilage, the extracellular matrix is
firm but pliable.
The extracellular matrix of bone, by contrast, is hard and
inflexible.
Connective Tissue Cells
• Mesodermal embryonic cells called mesenchymal cells give rise to
the cells of connective tissue.
• Each major type of connective tissue contains an immature class of
cells with a name ending in -blast, which means “to bud or
sprout.”
• These immature cells are called fibroblasts in loose and dense connective
tissue chondroblasts in cartilage, and osteoblasts in bone.
• In
cartilage and bone, once the extracellular matrix is produced, the
immature cells differentiate into mature cells with names ending in -
cyte, namely chondrocytes and osteocytes.
The types of connective tissue cells vary according to the type of
tissue and include the following
1.Fibroblasts are large, flat cells with branching processes.
They are present in several connective tissues. Fibroblasts
migrate through the connective tissue, secreting the fibers and
certain components of the ground substance of the extracellular
matrix.
2.Adipocytes, also called fat cells or adipose cells, are connective
tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats). They are found deep to
the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
3.Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply
connective tissue. They produce histamine, a chemical that
dilates small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory
response, the body’s reaction to injury or infection.
4. White blood cells are not found in significant numbers in
normal connective tissue. However, in response to certain
conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissues.
For example, neutrophils gather at sites of infection

5. Macrophages develop from monocytes, a type of white

blood cell. Macrophages have an irregular shape with short
branching projections and are capable of engulfing bacteria
and cellular debris by phagocytosis.

6. Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a type of

white blood cell called a B lymphocyte. Plasma cells secrete
antibodies. Thus, plasma cells are an important part of the body’s
immune response.
Connective Tissue
Extracellular Matrix
Each type of connective tissue has unique properties, based on the
specific extracellular materials between the cells.
The extracellular matrix consists of two major components:
• (1) ground substance and
• (2) fibers.
1.GROUND SUBSTANCE
• The ground substance is the component of a connective tissue between the
cells and fibers. The ground substance may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or
calcified.
• The ground substance supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and
provides a medium through which substances are exchanged between the blood
and cells.
• Ground substance contains water and an assortment of large organic molecules
• The polysaccharides include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan
sulfate, and keratan sulfate. Collectively, they are referred to as
glycosaminoglycans
• Hyaluronic acid is a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together,
lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs.
• Chondroitin sulfate provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin,
and blood vessels.
• The skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves contain dermatan sulfate;
• Bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye contain keratan sulfate.
2.FIBERS
• Three types of fibers are embedded in
the extracellular matrix between the
cells: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and
reticular fibers. They function to
strengthen and support connective
tissues.
1. Collagen fibers (colla-glue) are very
strong and resist pulling forces, but
they are not stiff, which allows tissue
flexibility
2. Elastic fibers, which are smaller in
diameter than collagen fibers, branch
and join together to form a network
within a tissue. An elastic fiber
consists of molecules of the protein
elastin.
3. Reticular fibers (reticul- net),
consisting of collagen, provide
support in the walls of blood vessels
Types of Mature Connective
Tissue
• (1) LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE,
• (2) DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE,
• (3) CARTILAGE,
• (4) BONE TISSUE, AND
• (5)
LIQUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE (BLOOD TISSUE AND
LYMPH)