Research
Methods
(MIE317)
Chapter 3:
Research Design
Methodology
Violet Kurira
Department of Mining, Chemical and
Metallurgical Engineering.
University of Zimbabwe
1
Research Design
◦ Specification of methods and procedures for obtaining the information needed to
answer the research question/s.
◦ A plan for conducting the research, to collect and analyze data.
◦ It serves as a blueprint of detailed procedures and rationales of a research project
◦ Serves an essential part of the research methodology chapter.
2
Research Design Process
◦ What will the study be all about?
◦ Why is the study being caried out?
◦ Where is the study going to be carried out?
◦ What tools and techniques of data collection will be used?
◦ How will the data be analyzed and interpreted?
◦ How will the issue of reliability and validity be addressed?
◦ What type of data is required?
◦ How much time will the study require?
◦ What will be the sample design?
Importance of Research Design
◦ Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide the research study.
◦ Supports in better planning and execution of the research methodology
◦ Useful estimation of probable research errors and handling strategies
◦ Maintains necessary control over the contents of study
◦ Makes the study more systematic and effective
Three Research Approaches
◦ You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the
same study.
Observational Research
Survey Research
Experimental Research
Observation methods
◦ Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics,
behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.
◦ Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you
might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis.
◦ They can be qualitative or quantitative.
◦
◦ Quantitative observation Qualitative
observation
◦ Systematically counting or measuring Taking detailed notes and
writing rich descriptions
Survey Methods
◦ Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by
asking people directly.
◦ The two main survey methods to choose from are questionnaires and interviews.
◦ Questionnaires Interviews
• More common in quantitative research More common in qualitative
research
• May be distributed online, by phone, by mail or in person Conducted by researcher in
person , by phone or online
• Usually offer closed questions with limited options Usually allow participants to
answer in their own words
• Consistent data can be collected from many people Ideas can be explored in-depth
with a smaller group
Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re
actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability Validity
Does your measure capture the same Do your measurement materials test all
concept consistently over time? aspects of the same concept?
Does it produce the same results in Does it correlate with different measures
different contexts? of the same concept?
Do all questions measure the exact same
concept?
Reliability and Validity
◦ For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly
researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out
the same steps in the same way for each participant.
◦ If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific
concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in
advance.
Experimental Research
◦ Experimental design is the process of carrying out research in an objective and controlled
fashion so that precision is maximized and specific conclusions can be drawn regarding a
hypothesis statement. Generally, the purpose is to establish the effect that a factor or
independent variable has on a dependent variable. generally speaking, one variable, the
independent variable, is controlled in order to measure its effect on other, dependent,
variables.
◦ Experimental design as a subset of scientific investigation is a popular and widely used
research approach. The essence of experimental design and perhaps the most important
reason researchers choose to design and conduct experiments is the precision with which
one can analyze the relationship between and among variables and to make that analysis
as objective as possible.
Experimental Research…(cntd)
◦ There is often an important and intimate relationship between the experimental
design and the type of data that is collected and statistical approach that will be
used to analyze the data.
◦ There are several steps in the development of an experiment. The researcher must
generate a research question, state a testable hypothesis, determine how to control
variability during the experimental process, select or develop intervention
conditions, sample from a population in order to assign them to experimental
conditions, and determine what empirical measures will be made (and how data will
be recorded).
◦ There is often an important and intimate relationship between the experimental
design and the type of data that is collected and statistical approach that will be
used to analyze the data.
Sampling procedures
o Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about
choosing your participants or subjects.
o In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the
smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.
o A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, rocks, organizations, texts, etc.
o The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.
o To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The
sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.
o Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical inferences about the
whole group.
o Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you
to easily collect data.
o Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, For practical reasons, many studies use non-
probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases.
o One should always try to gather a sample that is representative as possible.
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?
Necessity: Sometimes it’s simply not possible to study the whole population due to
its size or inaccessibility.
Practicality: It’s easier and more efficient to collect data from a sample.
Cost-effectiveness: There are fewer participant, laboratory, equipment, and
researcher costs involved.
Manageability: Storing and running statistical analyses on smaller datasets is
easier and reliable.
Sampling Terminologies
Sampling Frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Sample Size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors, including
the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are different sample size
calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.
Sampling Error
A sampling error is a statistical error that occurs when an analyst does not select a sample that
represents the entire population of data. Sampling error means the difference between the mean
values of the sample and the population.
The aim of scientific research is to generalize findings from the sample to the population, hence
the sampling error to be low.
Sampling error is reduced by increasing the sample size.
Comparison of the Sampling
Methods
Probability Sampling Non-probability sampling
Sample is selected using random methods Sample selected in a non-random way
Mainly used in quantitative research Used in both qualitative and quantitative
research
Allows you to make strong statistical Easier to achieve, but more risk of bias
inferences about the population
Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
◦ In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected. The sampling frame includes the whole population.
◦ Tools like random number generators can be used to assign numbers to every
subject in the population.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
◦ This is similar to simple random sampling.
◦ Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Probability Sampling Methods
3. Stratified Sampling
Involves dividing the population into sub-populations or subgroups based on a
relevant characteristic, e.g. gender, age, age range, job role.
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
4. Cluster Sampling
Involves dividing the the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have
similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations.
Non-probability Sampling
Methods
1. Convenience Sampling
◦ A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
◦ This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell
if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable
results.
2. Voluntary response sampling
◦ Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves
◦ Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.
Non-probability Sampling
Methods
3. Purposive Sampling
o This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using
their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
o It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where
the population is very small and specific.
4. Snowball Sampling
o Snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants.
o The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more
people.
Non-probability Sampling
Methods
5. Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a two-stage non-probability sampling method that assigns quotas
to the population in order to ensure that when elements of the population are
selected, the sample group is representative of the population’s characteristics. After
quotas are assigned, researchers choose elements from the subgroups using
convenience or judgment.
Sampling Design Process
Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling Non- Probability
Simple Random Sampling Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling Convenience Sampling
Stratified Sampling Purposive Sampling
Cluster Sampling Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Determine appropriate sample size
Execute Sampling Design
Types of Data
◦ Primary Data
◦ Is data that originates from primary sources and is based on observation or
investigation or direct questioning
◦ Secondary Data
◦ Is data that originates from secondary sources, data that is already available,
collected and analyzed by someone else.
Data Analysis
◦ Your data analysis will depend on the data collected
Statistical Analysis
◦ Used to analyze quantitative data from experiments, surveys and observations,
e.g., regression tests, comparison tests and correlation tests..
Meta Analysis
◦ Used to statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies.
Thematic Analysis
◦ Used to analyze data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources.
◦ Content Analysis
◦ Used to analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys,
literature reviews or other sources.
