Data

Management

Department of Mathematics and Natural

Sciences

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 ”The quiet statisticians have changed our
world; not by discovering new facts or
technical developments, but by changing the
ways that we reason, experiment, and form
opinions” - Ian Hacking

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 STATISTIC
S
It is an art of learning from the data. It is a
branch of knowledge which deals with
collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data that are subject for
variability.

According to W.A. Wallis, it maybe defined as

a body of methods for making wise decisions
in the face of uncertainty.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Application of Statistics

 Determining the income distribution of

Filipino families.

 Comparing the effectiveness of two

therapy techniques.

 Prediction of daily temperatures

 Evaluation of student performance

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Role of Statistics in Scientific
Process
 Science is a method of asking questions
and finding answers.
1. Researchers form theories.
2. Generate testable hypothesis.
3. Design studies / Collect data.
- Observation, measurement
 Where does Statistics fit in?
 Science method of collecting data
 Statistics tools for analyzing data

Statistics is a standardized methods and rules for organizing,

summarizing, and interpreting the data collected.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Two Aims of Statistics

Statistics aims to uncover structure in data,

to explain variation.

1.Descriptive
2.Inferential

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Descriptive Statistics
It pertains to the methods dealing with the
collection, organization and analysis of a set of
data without making conclusions, predictions
or inferences about a larger set.

Examp
le
 Suppose we want to describe the test scores in a
specific class of 30 students. We record all of the test
scores and calculate the summary statistics and
produce graphs.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Inferential Statistics
This pertains to the methods dealing with making
inferences, estimation or prediction about a larger set
of data (population) using the information gathered
from a subset of this larger set (sample).

Examp
le
a) You randomly select a sample of 11th graders in your school
and collect data on their SAT scores and other
characteristics.
b) You can use inferential statistics to make estimates and test
hypotheses about the whole population of 11th graders in the
school based on your sample data.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Descriptive vs. Inferential
Statistics

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Basic Statistical Terms
Universe or physical population is the set
of all individuals or entities under consideration
or study.

Study: Suppose that a researcher is

interested in the stress level of
basic education teachers during the
preparation for online classes.

What is the universe?

Basic education teachers

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Variable is a characteristic or attribute of persons or
objects which assumes different values or label. This is
a thing that we measure, control or manipulate in a
research varying from unit to unit.

Example
Suppose we collect a dataset by measuring the
resting heart rate, score of an IQ test, favorite
color of every student in a class. The variables in
this dataset would be resting heart rate, score of
an IQ test, favorite color.

If it can only assume one value, then it is

called a constant.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
Types of data:
1. Qualitative Data (categorical) occur
when we assign objects into labelled
groups or categories.

Example
when we group people according to:
Marital Status, Socio-Economic Status,
Religious Sector, zip code, and
military rank

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
Types of data:
1. Quantitative Data(either Discrete or
Continuous) occur when we count or
measure.
a) Discrete – can be counted using
integral values
Example
a) count the number of students in a
classroom
b) count the number of computers in
the computer laboratory
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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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Types of data:
1. Quantitative Data(either Discrete or
Continuous) occur when we count or
measure.
b) Continuous – can be measured on an
infinite scale
Example
a) measure the weight and height of a
respondent
b) Measure the temperature of covid
patients
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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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Dependent and Independent Variables:
1. Dependent Variable – the variable
whose value is being predicted
2. Independent Variable – the predictor

Example
 To predict the amount of sunlight on a growth of
a certain plant
Independent: amount of sunlight
Dependent: growth of a certain plant
 To evaluate the effect of using computer to the
performance of the students
Independent: using computer
Dependent: performance of students
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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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Classification of data according to their dependence on time:

1. Cross – sectional – refer to observations

of many different individuals (subjects,
objects) at a given time, each observation
belonging to a different individual

Example
 the gross annual income for each of 1000
randomly chosen households in Cebu City
for the year 2000.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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Classification of data according to their dependence on time:

2. Time series– is a sequence of data

points collected over time intervals,
allowing us to track changes over time

Example
 The financial sector is a typical example of time-
series data usage: be it stocks, cryptocurrencies
or other financial assets, time-series data allows
you to see how prices changed over time and
helps you spot trends.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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Classification of data according to their dependence on time:

3. Longitudinal data –is data that is

collected sequentially from the same
respondents over time.

Example
 For example, because longitudinal data
measures how long events last, it can be used to
see if the same group of individuals remain
unemployed during a recession, or whether
different individuals are moving in and out of
unemployment.
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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
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 Primary and Secondary Data
Primary Data refer to information which are
gathered directly from the original source or
which are based on direct or first-hand
experience (e.g. surveys, interviews,
observations, registration, autobiographies,
diaries, etc.).

Secondary Data refer to information which

are taken from published or unpublished data
which are previously gathered by other
individuals or agencies (e.g books, magazines,
newspapers, internet, etc.).

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Statistical Population is a collection of all
cases in which the researcher is interested in a
statistical study.

The numerical measures that describe it are

parameters.

Sample is a portion or a subset of the

population from which the information is
gathered.

The numerical measures that describe it are

statistic.

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Some of the statistical measures and symbols
are presented in the table.

(Parameters are denoted by Greek letters to honor

the contribution of ancient Greek philosophers. - Sir
Ronald A. Fisher, father of modern day Statistics.)

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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern
 Levels (Scales) of Measurement
 Nominal Scale does not indicate an amount,
rather, it is used for identification, as a name.

Example
gender, race, color, and savings account number.

 Interval scale indicates an actual quantity and there

is an equal unit of measurement separating adjacent
scores. Interval scales do not have a ”true” 0.

Example
temperature, score in an exam, and IQ.

Nominal Scale does not indicate an

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amount,
Math031 rather,
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 Levels (Scales) of Measurement
 Ordinal Scale indicates rank order. There is no equal
unit of measurement separating each score.

Example
socioeconomic status of families, Class Standing (A to
D), and Teacher’s Evaluation (Excellent to Poor).
 Ratio scale reflects the true amount of the variable
that is present because the scores measure an actual
amount, there is an equal unit of measurement, and 0
truly means that zero amount of the variable is present.

Example
time or space, height, weight, width, area, and income.

Nominal Scale does not indicate an

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amount,
Math031 rather,
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 Collection and
Presentation of Data

Department of Mathematics and Natural

Sciences

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 24

 Methods of Data
Collection
 Observation method - way of gathering data by
watching behavior, events, or noting physical
characteristics in their natural setting.

 Experimental method - is a data collection method

where you as a researcher change some variables and
observe their effect on other variables

 Survey method - the three most common types of

sample surveys are mail surveys, telephone surveys,
and personal interview surveys

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 25

 Methods of Data
Collection
 Use of existing studies - refer to data acquired
from secondary sources rather than from original data
collection efforts (Hatry, 1994; Kettner et al., 1990)

 Registration method - refers to continuous,

permanent, compulsory recording of the occurrence
of vital events together with certain identifying or
descriptive characteristics concerning them, as
provided through the civil code, laws or regulations of
each country.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 26

 One of the most important stages in a
statistical analysis can be simply to look at
your data right at the start.
By doing this, you can spot characteristic
features, trends and outlying observations
that will help you carry out the most
appropriate statistical analysis.

REMEMBER: Look at your data always.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 27

 Methods of Data
Presentation
 Textual Method – the data are
incorporated in the text of the report.

 Graphical Method – the data are

presented in graphics form for an “easy to
digest” information.

 Tabular Method – the data are presented

in rows and columns.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 28

Graphical
Method
Pie Chart is used to visually depict qualitative data. A
circle divided into sections according to the percentage
of frequencies in each category of the distribution

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 29

 Bar Graph represents the data by using
vertical or horizontal bars whose heights or
lenghts represent the frequencies of the data.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 30

 Time Series Graph shows the data that have
been collected at different point in time.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 31

 Line Graph is used to show trend (increase
or decrease in quantitative data)

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 32

 Pareto Chart is a type of chart that contains both bar
and line graph, where individual values are represented
in descending order by bars and the cumulative total is
represented by the line.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 33

 Tabular
Method
Parts of a Statistical
Table
1 Table Heading includes the table number
and the title of the table
2 Body is the main part of the table that
contains the information or figures
3 Stubs or Classes are the classification or
categories describing the data and usually
found at the left most side of the table.
4 Caption is a designation or identification of
the information contained in a column,
usually found at the top most of the
column.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 34

 Exam
ple Table 2. Occupational status of participants in
Occupation Frequency
the researchRelative frequency
Nuns 17 21.25
Nursery teachers 3 3.75
Television 23 28.75
presenters
Students 20 25.00
Other 17 21.25

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 35

 Consider the following completion time
(in minutes) of the 50 students doing
an activity in the laboratory.
25 29 30 32 36 36 39 40 40 44
45 48 49 50 50 51 54 55 55 55
55 56 57 57 59 60 60 60 61 61
61 63 65 65 65 67 68 70 71 74
74 76 77 77 80 81 81 83 84 90

Ordered Array is a listing of values from the

smallest to largest values or conversely.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 36

 Stem and Leaf display of data is a device that
is useful in presenting relatively small
quantitative data sets.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 37

 Frequency Distribution Table refers to the tabular
arrangement of data by non-overlapping classes or
categories together with their corresponding class
frequencies.

How to construct frequency distribution

(suggestion)
1. Selecting the number of class intervals or
groupings (k).
(Sturge’s rule) k = smallest integer greater than
or equal to
1 + log (n)/log (2) = 1 + 3.322log (n)
where n is the number of data.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 38

 Frequency Distribution Table refers to the tabular
arrangement of data by non-overlapping classes or
categories together with their corresponding class
frequencies.

How to construct frequency distribution

(suggestion)
3. Compute the class width.
4. Determine the lower and the upper limit of the
intervals.
5. Determine the frequency of values falling within
each class interval.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 39

 How to construct frequency distribution
(From the data of the completion time of 50
students ) the number of class intervals or
1. Selecting
groupings (k).
(Sturge’s rule) k = smallest integer greater than
or equal to
1 + 3.322log (n)
where n is the number of data.

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 40

 From the data of the completion time of 50
students,
k = 7; class width = 90−25
7 = 10
Table 3. FDT of the completion time (in minutes) of the 50
students doing an activity in the laboratory

Completion time frequenc

(in minutes) y
2 29 30 32 36 36 39 40 40 44 25-34 4
5 35-44 6
4 48 49 50 50 51 54 55 55 55
45-54 7
5
5 56 57 57 59 60 60 60 61 61
55-64 15
5 65-74 9
6 63 65 65 65 67 68 70 71 74 75 - 84 8
1 85-94 1
7 76 77 77 80 81 81 83 84 90
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Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 41
 Other components of the FDT
1
Class Boundaries
2
Class Marks
3
Cumulative
4
Frequency
Relative
Frequency

Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 42

 Table 3.1. FDT of the completion
time . . .
Time f CB Xi ≤ CF ≥ CF RF
25- 4 24.5 - 34.5 29.5 4 50 8
34
35- 6 34.5 - 44.5 39.5 10 46 12
44
45- 7 44.5 - 54.5 49.5 17 40 14
54
55- 15 54.5 - 64.5 59.5 32 33 30
64
65- 9 64.5 - 74.5 69.5 41 18 18
74
75- 8 74.5 - 84.5 79.5 49 9 16
84
85- 1 84.5 - 94.5 89.5 50 1 2
Math031 - Mathematics in the Modern World 43
 Graphical presentation of
continuous type of data
1
Histogram
2
Frequency Polygon
3
Cumulative Frequency Polygram

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 Histogram and Frequency
Polygon

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 Cumulative frequency polygram
(ogive)

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