Unit03 DBMS
Unit03 DBMS
TERM 2008-09
Slide No:L1-1
Example Instance of Students Relation
Slide No:L1-3
The SQL Query Language
Slide No:L1-4
Querying Multiple Relations
Slide No:L1-5
Creating Relations in SQL
Slide No:L1-6
Destroying and Altering Relations
DROP TABLE Students
• Destroys the relation Students. The schema
information and the tuples are deleted.
Slide No:L1-7
Adding and Deleting Tuples
DELETE
FROM Students S
WHERE S.name = ‘Smith’
Slide No:L1-8
Integrity Constraints (ICs)
• IC: condition that must be true for any instance of the database;
e.g., domain constraints.
– ICs are specified when schema is defined.
– ICs are checked when relations are modified.
• A legal instance of a relation is one that satisfies all specified
ICs.
– DBMS should not allow illegal instances.
• If the DBMS checks ICs, stored data is more faithful to real-world
meaning.
– Avoids data entry errors, too!
Slide No:L1-9
Primary Key Constraints
• A set of fields is a key for a relation if :
1. No two distinct tuples can have same values in all key
fields, and
2. This is not true for any subset of the key.
– Part 2 false? A superkey.
– If there’s >1 key for a relation, one of the keys is chosen
(by DBA) to be the primary key.
• E.g., sid is a key for Students. (What about name?) The set
{sid, gpa} is a superkey.
Slide No:L1-10
Primary and Candidate Keys in SQL
• Links in HTML!
Slide No:L1-12
Foreign Keys in SQL
Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8
Slide No:L1-13
Enforcing Referential Integrity
• Consider Students and Enrolled; sid in Enrolled is a foreign key that
references Students.
• What should be done if an Enrolled tuple with a non-existent student
id is inserted? (Reject it!)
• What should be done if a Students tuple is deleted?
– Also delete all Enrolled tuples that refer to it.
– Disallow deletion of a Students tuple that is referred to.
– Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a default sid.
– (In SQL, also: Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a special
value null, denoting `unknown’ or `inapplicable’.)
• Similar if primary key of Students tuple is updated.
Slide No:L2-1
Referential Integrity in SQL
• SQL/92 and SQL:1999 support all
4 options on deletes and updates.
– Default is NO ACTION
(delete/update is rejected) CREATE TABLE Enrolled
– CASCADE (also delete all (sid CHAR(20),
tuples that refer to deleted cid CHAR(20),
tuple)
– SET NULL / SET DEFAULT (sets grade CHAR(2),
foreign key value of PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid),
referencing tuple) FOREIGN KEY (sid)
REFERENCES Students
ON DELETE CASCADE
ON UPDATE SET
DEFAULT )
Slide No:L2-2
Where do ICs Come From?
Slide No:L2-3
Logical DB Design: ER to Relational
CREATE TABLE
name
Employees
ssn lot (ssn CHAR(11),
name CHAR(20),
Employees lot INTEGER,
PRIMARY KEY
(ssn))
Slide No:L3-1
Relationship Sets to Tables
Slide No:L3-2
Review: Key Constraints
Translation to
relational model?
Slide No:L3-4
Review: Participation Constraints
since
name dname
ssn lot did budget
Works_In
since
Slide No:L3-5
Participation Constraints in SQL
Slide No:L3-6
Review: Weak Entities
name
cost pname age
ssn lot
Slide No:L4-1
Translating Weak Entity Sets
• Weak entity set and identifying relationship set are translated
into a single table.
– When the owner entity is deleted, all owned weak entities
must also be deleted.
Slide No:L4-2
Review: ISA Hierarchies
name
As in C++, or other ssn lot
PLs, attributes are
inherited. Employees
If we declare A ISA
hourly_wages hours_worked
B, every A entity is ISA
contractid
also considered to
be a B entity. Contract_Emps
Hourly_Emps
Slide No:L4-3
Translating ISA Hierarchies to Relations
• General approach:
– 3 relations: Employees, Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
• Hourly_Emps: Every employee is recorded in
Employees. For hourly emps, extra info recorded in
Hourly_Emps (hourly_wages, hours_worked, ssn);
must delete Hourly_Emps tuple if referenced
Employees tuple is deleted).
• Queries involving all employees easy, those involving
just Hourly_Emps require a join to get some attributes.
• Alternative: Just Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
– Hourly_Emps: ssn, name, lot, hourly_wages, hours_worked.
– Each employee must be in one of these two subclasses.
Slide No:L4-4
Review: Binary vs. Ternary
Relationships
name
ssn lot pname age
• What are the
additional Employees Covers
constraints in the
Dependents
2nd diagram? Bad design Policies
policyid cost
Purchaser
Beneficiary
Slide No:L4-5
policyid cost
Binary vs. Ternary Relationships
(Contd.)
CREATE TABLE Policies (
• The key
constraints allow policyid INTEGER,
us to combine cost REAL,
Purchaser with ssn CHAR(11) NOT NULL,
Policies and PRIMARY KEY (policyid).
Beneficiary with FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees
Dependents. ON DELETE CASCADE)
• Participation
CREATE TABLE Dependents (
constraints lead pname CHAR(20),
to NOT NULL
constraints. age INTEGER,
• What if Policies policyid INTEGER,
is a weak entity PRIMARY KEY (pname, policyid).
set? FOREIGN KEY (policyid) REFERENCES Policies
ON DELETE CASCADE)
Slide No:L4-6
Views
Slide No:L5-2
View Definition
• A relation that is not of the conceptual model but is
made visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is
called a view.
• A view is defined using the create view statement
which has the form
create view v as < query expression >
where <query expression> is any legal SQL
expression. The view name is represented by v.
• Once a view is defined, the view name can be used
to refer to the virtual relation that the view
generates.
Slide No:L5-3
Example Queries
• A view consisting of branches and their customers
create view all_customer as
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )
union
(select branch_name, customer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number )
Slide No:L5-4
Uses of Views
• Hiding some information from some users
– Consider a user who needs to know a customer’s name,
loan number and branch name, but has no need to see
the loan amount.
– Define a view
(create view cust_loan_data as
select customer_name,
borrower.loan_number, branch_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number =
loan.loan_number )
– Grant the user permission to read cust_loan_data, but
not borrower or loan
• Predefined queries to make writing of other queries
easier
– Common example: Aggregate queries used for
statistical analysis of data
Slide No:L5-5
Processing of Views
• When a view is created
– the query expression is stored in the database along
with the view name
– the expression is substituted into any query using the
view
• Views definitions containing views
– One view may be used in the expression defining
another view
– A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view
relation v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1
– A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if
either v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a path of
dependencies from v1 to v2
– A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on
itself.
Slide No:L5-6
View Expansion
• A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms
of other views.
• Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may
itself contain uses of view relations.
• View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step:
repeat
Find any view relation vi in e1
Replace the view relation vi by the
expression defining vi
until no more view relations are present in e1
• As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this
loop will terminate
Slide No:L5-7
With Clause
• The with clause provides a way of defining a
temporary view whose definition is available only
to the query in which the with clause occurs.
• Find all accounts with the maximum balance
Slide No:L5-8
Complex Queries using With Clause
• Find all branches where the total account deposit is
greater than the average of the total account deposits
at all branches.
with branch_total (branch_name, value) as
select branch_name, sum (balance)
from account
group by branch_name
with branch_total_avg (value) as
select avg (value)
from branch_total
select branch_name
from branch_total, branch_total_avg
where branch_total.value >= branch_total_avg.value
• Note: the exact syntax supported by your database
may vary slightly.
– E.g. Oracle syntax is of the form
with branch_total as ( select .. ),
branch_total_avg as ( select .. )
select … Slide No:L5-9
Update of a View
• Create a view of all loan data in the loan relation,
hiding the amount attribute
create view loan_branch as
select loan_number, branch_name
from loan
• Add a new tuple to loan_branch
insert into loan_branch
values ('L-37‘, 'Perryridge‘)
This insertion must be represented by the
insertion of the tuple
('L-37', 'Perryridge', null )
into the loan relation
Slide No:L5-10
Formal Relational Query Languages
Slide No:L6-1
Preliminaries
Slide No:L6-2
Example Instances
R1 sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
• “Sailors” and “Reserves”
58 103 11/12/96
relations for our examples. sid sname rating age
• We’ll use positional or S1
named field notation, 22 dustin 7 45.0
assume that names of
fields in query results are 31 lubber 8 55.5
`inherited’ from names of 58 rusty 10 35.0
fields in query input
relations. sid sname rating age
S2
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
Slide No:L6-3
Relational Algebra
• Basic operations:
– Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
–
Projection ( ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
–
–
Cross-product (
Set-difference (
) Allows us to combine two relations.
) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
•
–
Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
Additional operations:
– Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but
(very!) useful.
• Since each operation returns a relation, operations can be
composed! (Algebra is “closed”.)
Slide No:L6-4
Projection
sname rating
yuppy 9
• Deletes attributes that are
not in projection list.
lubber 8
• Schema of result contains guppy 5
exactly the fields in the rusty 10
projection list, with the same
names that they had in the
sname,rating(S2)
(only) input relation.
• Projection operator has to
eliminate duplicates! age
(Why??) 35.0
– Note: real systems typically
don’t do duplicate 55.5
elimination unless the user
explicitly asks for it. (Why age(S2)
not?)
Slide No:L6-5
Selection
sid sname rating age
• Selects rows that satisfy 28 yuppy 9 35.0
selection condition. 58 rusty 10 35.0
• No duplicates in result!
(Why?) rating 8(S2)
• Schema of result identical to
schema of (only) input
relation. sname rating
• Result relation can be the
input for another relational
yuppy 9
algebra operation! rusty 10
(Operator composition.)
Slide No:L6-6
Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
• All of these operations take two sid sname rating age
input relations, which must be
union-compatible: 22 dustin 7 45.0
– Same number of fields.
31 lubber 8 55.5
– `Corresponding’ fields have
the same type. 58 rusty 10 35.0
• What is the schema of result? 44 guppy 5 35.0
28 yuppy 9 35.0
S1 S2
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1 S2
S1 S2
Slide No:L6-7
Cross-Product
• Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
• Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited’ if possible.
– Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.
Slide No:L6-8
Joins
R c S c ( R S)
• Condition Join:
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/ 12/ 96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/ 12/ 96
S1 R1
S1. sid R1. sid
• Result schema same as that of cross-product.
• Fewer tuples than cross-product, might be able
to compute more efficiently
• Sometimes called a theta-join.
Slide No:L6-9
Joins
S1 R1
sid
• Result schema similar to cross-product, but only
one copy of fields for which equality is specified.
• Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.
Slide No:L6-10
Division
– A/B =
• Let A have 2
x fields,
| x ,xy and
Ay;B yhave
Bonly field y:
Slide No:L6-14
Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a red boat
• Information about boat color only available in Boats; so need an
extra join:
Slide No:L6-15
Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green
boat
• Can identify all red or green boats, then find sailors who’ve
reserved one of these boats:
(Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red ' color ' green '
sname(Tempboats Re serves Sailors)
Slide No:L6-16
Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a green
boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must identify sailors who’ve
reserved red boats, sailors who’ve reserved green boats, then find
the intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
Slide No:L6-17
Relational Calculus
• Atomic formula:
– x1, x2,..., xn Rname, or X op Y, or X op constant
– op is one of , ,
, , ,
• Formula:
– an atomic formula, or
p, p q, p q
– , where p and q are formulas, or
–X ( p( X )) , where variable X is free in p(X), or
X ( p( X ))
– , where variable X is free in p(X)
•
X
The use of quantifiers and
X is said to bind X.
– A variable that is not bound is free.
Slide No:L7-3
Free and Bound Variables
x1, x2,..., xn | p x1, x2,..., xn
Slide No:L8-1
Find all sailors with a rating above 7
I, N,T, A | I, N,T, A Sailors T 7
Slide No:L8-3
Find sailors rated > 7 who’ve reserved a red
boat
I, N, T , A | I, N, T, A Sailors T 7
Slide No:L8-4
Find sailors who’ve reserved all boats
I, N,T, A | I, N, T, A Sailors
Ir, Br, D
Ir, Br, D Re serves I Ir Br B
• Find all sailors I such that for each 3-tuple B, BN,C either it is not
a tuple in Boats or there is a tuple in Reserves showing that sailor I has
reserved it.
Slide No:L8-5
Find sailors who’ve reserved all boats (again!)
I, N,T, A | I, N, T, A Sailors
B, BN, C Boats
Ir, Br, D Re serves I Ir Br B
...
C ' red ' Ir, Br, D Re serves I Ir Br B
..
Slide No:L8-6
Unsafe Queries, Expressive Power
• It is possible to write syntactically correct calculus
queries that have an infinite number of answers!
Such queries are called unsafe.
– e.g., S | S Sailors
Slide No:L8-7